Hawaiian Studies Unit 8 Review: Colonization & Overthrow

Pre-Contact Hawaiian Society

• Polynesians settled the Hawaiian Islands between 300-800 AD, bringing with them plants (taro, breadfruit, coconut) and animals (pigs, chickens, dogs) to establish a self-sufficient society
• Hawaiian society was stratified into classes: ali'i (chiefs), kahuna (priests), maka'āinana (commoners), and kauā (outcasts or slaves)
• Land was divided into ahupua'a, self-sustaining land divisions running from the mountains to the sea, each managed by a konohiki (land manager) appointed by the ali'i
  • Ahupua'a provided resources for the people living within them, fostering a strong connection to the land and a sense of community
• Hawaiians developed complex irrigation systems, including lo'i (taro patches) and 'auwai (irrigation ditches), to support intensive agriculture
• Religion played a central role in Hawaiian society, with a polytheistic belief system that included gods such as Kū (god of war), Lono (god of agriculture), Kāne (god of creation), and Kanaloa (god of the ocean)
  • Kapu system, a set of sacred laws and prohibitions, governed daily life and reinforced the social hierarchy
• Hawaiians excelled in various arts and crafts, including kapa (bark cloth) making, featherwork, and canoe building
• Oral traditions, including chants (oli), songs (mele), and stories (mo'olelo), preserved Hawaiian history, genealogy, and cultural knowledge across generations

Early European Contact

• Captain James Cook, a British explorer, made the first documented European contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778
  • Hawaiians initially believed Cook to be the god Lono due to his arrival coinciding with the Makahiki festival, a time of peace and celebration
• Cook's arrival marked the beginning of a period of significant change for the Hawaiian people, as they were exposed to new technologies, diseases, and cultural influences
• Early European explorers and traders introduced new crops (pineapple, coffee, sugarcane) and animals (cattle, goats, sheep) to the islands, which would later reshape the agricultural landscape
• European contact brought new weapons, particularly firearms, which altered the balance of power among the Hawaiian chiefs and led to increased warfare
• Introduction of foreign diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, devastated the Hawaiian population, which had no natural immunity
  • Estimated population of 300,000-800,000 at the time of Cook's arrival declined to about 40,000 by the 1890s
• European influence led to the gradual erosion of traditional Hawaiian religious practices and social structures, as some Hawaiians adopted Christianity and Western customs
• Trade with Europeans and Americans increased, particularly in sandalwood, which became a valuable commodity in the early 19th century
  • Sandalwood trade led to the depletion of forests and the exploitation of Hawaiian labor by chiefs seeking to profit from the trade

Kamehameha's Unification

• Kamehameha I, also known as Kamehameha the Great, was a Hawaiian chief who united the Hawaiian Islands under a single rule in the late 18th and early 19th centuries
• Born on the island of Hawai'i around 1758, Kamehameha was a skilled warrior and strategist who sought to conquer the neighboring islands
• Kamehameha's rise to power began with the Battle of Moku'ōhai in 1782, where he defeated his rival, Kīwala'ō, and gained control of the island of Hawai'i
• In the 1790s, Kamehameha acquired European firearms and built a large fleet of war canoes, which gave him a significant military advantage over other chiefs
• Kamehameha conquered the islands of Maui, Lāna'i, and Moloka'i in 1795, and by 1810, he had successfully united all the Hawaiian Islands under his rule, except for Kaua'i, which joined through peaceful negotiations
• Kamehameha's unification of the islands marked the end of the ancient Hawaiian system of rule and the beginning of the Hawaiian Kingdom as a unified political entity
• As king, Kamehameha I established a strong central government, promoted trade with foreign nations, and maintained Hawaii's independence in the face of increasing foreign influence
• Kamehameha I died in 1819, leaving a legacy as the founder of the Hawaiian Kingdom and a symbol of Hawaiian unity and strength

Constitutional Monarchy Era

• Following Kamehameha I's death, his son Liholiho (Kamehameha II) ascended to the throne and abolished the kapu system in 1819, marking a significant shift in Hawaiian society and religion
• Kamehameha III, who ruled from 1825 to 1854, faced increasing pressure from foreign powers and sought to establish a constitutional monarchy to protect Hawaiian sovereignty
  • In 1840, Kamehameha III promulgated the first Hawaiian constitution, which established a system of government with a legislature, a judiciary, and a bill of rights
• The Great Māhele of 1848, a land redistribution act, transformed the traditional Hawaiian land tenure system into a Western-style private property system
  • The Great Māhele resulted in the concentration of land ownership among foreign residents and left many Native Hawaiians landless
• During the constitutional monarchy era, the Hawaiian government signed several treaties with foreign powers, including the United States, Great Britain, and France, to secure recognition of Hawaiian sovereignty and to regulate trade
• The Hawaiian monarchy faced ongoing challenges to its authority from foreign residents, particularly American businessmen and missionaries who sought to increase their political and economic influence in the islands
• King Kalākaua, who ruled from 1874 to 1891, sought to revitalize Hawaiian culture and assert the kingdom's independence on the international stage
  • Kalākaua's reign was marked by the construction of 'Iolani Palace, the promotion of Hawaiian music and dance (hula), and the revival of traditional practices such as surfing and canoe racing
• Queen Lili'uokalani, Kalākaua's sister and successor, attempted to strengthen the monarchy's power and protect Native Hawaiian interests through a new constitution, but was overthrown by a group of American businessmen and plantation owners in 1893

Foreign Influence and Economic Changes

• The arrival of American Protestant missionaries in 1820 had a profound impact on Hawaiian society, as they introduced Christianity, established schools, and developed a written Hawaiian language
  • Missionaries played a significant role in shaping Hawaiian government and legal systems, serving as advisors to the monarchy and helping to draft constitutions and laws
• The whaling industry became a major economic force in Hawaii in the early to mid-19th century, with Honolulu and Lahaina serving as important ports for resupplying and refitting ships
  • Whaling brought an influx of foreign sailors, merchants, and goods to the islands, further exposing Hawaiians to outside influences and contributing to the growth of a cash economy
• The sugar industry emerged as the dominant economic force in Hawaii in the late 19th century, with American businessmen establishing large plantations on the islands
  • Sugar plantations relied heavily on imported labor, particularly from China, Japan, and the Philippines, leading to significant demographic changes in Hawaii
• The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 between the United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom allowed for duty-free trade of Hawaiian sugar to the U.S., greatly benefiting American plantation owners and increasing U.S. economic and political influence in the islands
• The growth of the sugar industry led to the concentration of land ownership and political power among a small group of mostly American businessmen, known as the "Big Five" (Castle & Cooke, Alexander & Baldwin, C. Brewer & Co., Amfac, and Theo H. Davies & Co.)
• Foreign influence extended to Hawaiian culture, with the introduction of new music (hymns, brass bands), sports (baseball, horse racing), and fashion (Victorian-style clothing)
• The increasing foreign presence and economic changes in Hawaii contributed to a growing sense of unease among Native Hawaiians, who feared the loss of their land, culture, and political autonomy

Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom

• In the late 19th century, American businessmen and plantation owners, known as the "Committee of Safety," plotted to overthrow the Hawaiian monarchy and annex the islands to the United States
• Queen Lili'uokalani, who ascended to the throne in 1891, sought to strengthen the monarchy's power and protect Native Hawaiian interests by proposing a new constitution that would restore the monarch's authority and voting rights to Native Hawaiians
• In response to Lili'uokalani's proposed constitution, the Committee of Safety, with the support of U.S. Minister John L. Stevens, organized a coup d'état on January 17, 1893
  • Stevens ordered U.S. Marines from the USS Boston to land in Honolulu, ostensibly to protect American lives and property, but effectively providing military support for the overthrow
• Faced with the threat of violence and the presence of U.S. troops, Queen Lili'uokalani yielded her authority under protest, stating that she did so "to avoid any collision of armed forces and perhaps the loss of life"
• The Committee of Safety established a provisional government, led by Sanford B. Dole, and sought annexation to the United States
  • President Grover Cleveland, upon learning of the U.S. role in the overthrow, withdrew the annexation treaty and called for the restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy, but the provisional government refused
• The Republic of Hawaii was established in 1894, with Dole as its first and only president, further consolidating the power of the American business elite and marginalizing Native Hawaiians
• In 1898, during the Spanish-American War, the U.S. Congress passed the Newlands Resolution, annexing Hawaii as a U.S. territory, despite opposition from Native Hawaiians and the lack of a treaty or plebiscite

Aftermath and Resistance

• The overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom and subsequent annexation by the United States had devastating consequences for Native Hawaiians, who lost their political autonomy, land, and cultural identity
• The Hawaiian language and cultural practices were suppressed in schools and public life, as the territorial government sought to Americanize the population
  • Hawaiian language schools were banned in 1896, and the use of Hawaiian in public schools was prohibited until 1986
• Native Hawaiians faced discrimination and marginalization in their own land, with limited access to education, employment, and political representation
• Despite the challenges, Native Hawaiians maintained their cultural traditions and resisted assimilation through various means, including:
  • Hula, which served as a means of preserving Hawaiian language, history, and cultural values
  • Hawaiian music, which blended traditional chants and instruments with Western influences (slack-key guitar, 'ukulele) to create a distinct musical style
  • Hawaiian civic clubs and benevolent societies, which provided support networks and promoted Hawaiian culture and identity
• In the 1970s, the Hawaiian Renaissance, a cultural and political movement, emerged to revitalize Hawaiian language, arts, and traditions and to advocate for Native Hawaiian rights and sovereignty
  • The Hawaiian language immersion program, 'Aha Pūnana Leo, was established in 1984 to revive the Hawaiian language through early childhood education
• Native Hawaiian activists have continued to challenge the legality of the overthrow and annexation, and have sought redress and recognition from the U.S. government
  • In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed the Apology Resolution, acknowledging the U.S. role in the overthrow and expressing regret for the deprivation of Native Hawaiians' right to self-determination

Legacy and Modern Implications

• The overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom and annexation by the United States continue to have significant implications for Native Hawaiians and Hawaii's political status
• Native Hawaiians remain underrepresented in politics, education, and economic opportunities, and face disparities in health, housing, and incarceration rates compared to other ethnic groups in Hawaii
• The question of Hawaiian sovereignty and self-determination remains a contentious issue, with various groups advocating for different forms of political status, such as federal recognition, independence, or a return to the monarchy
  • The Hawaiian sovereignty movement gained momentum in the 1990s, with the formation of organizations such as Ka Lāhui Hawai'i and the Nation of Hawai'i, which seek to restore Hawaiian self-governance
• The U.S. government has taken some steps to address the historical injustices faced by Native Hawaiians, such as the creation of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA) in 1978 to administer trust funds and programs for Native Hawaiians
  • However, efforts to establish federal recognition for Native Hawaiians, similar to that of Native American tribes, have been met with mixed success and controversy
• The legacy of the overthrow and annexation is also evident in the ongoing debates over land use, development, and the protection of sacred sites in Hawaii
  • Conflicts over projects such as the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) on Mauna Kea and the proposed development of Nā Pali Coast State Wilderness Park highlight the tensions between cultural preservation, economic development, and scientific research
• The story of the Hawaiian Kingdom's overthrow and annexation serves as a reminder of the complex history of colonialism, imperialism, and indigenous resistance in the Pacific, and the ongoing struggles for self-determination and cultural preservation among indigenous peoples worldwide