7.2 The Islamic Republic of Iran and its impact

The Islamic Republic of Iran, established after the 1979 revolution, reshaped the country's governance and foreign policy. Built on Ayatollah Khomeini's concept of Velayat-e Faqih (guardianship of the Islamic jurist), Iran blended theocracy with republican institutions, creating a political system unlike any other in the modern world.

Understanding how this system works, and the pressures it faces both at home and abroad, is central to grasping the broader story of political Islam's rise in the late twentieth century.

Governance and Ideology

Velayat-e Faqih and Islamic Constitution

Velayat-e Faqih is the principle that an Islamic jurist should hold supreme political authority over the state. Ayatollah Khomeini developed this idea and made it the foundation of Iran's post-revolutionary government.

The Islamic Constitution of 1979 codified Velayat-e Faqih into law, creating a layered system that mixes theocratic and democratic elements:

• The Supreme Leader sits at the top, holding ultimate authority over the military, judiciary, and major policy decisions. This position was held by Khomeini until his death in 1989, then passed to Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.
• An elected parliament (Majles) and president handle day-to-day governance, giving the system a republican face.
• The Guardian Council, a body of twelve clerics and jurists, vets all candidates for office and reviews legislation to ensure it aligns with Islamic principles. This means the council can effectively block reformist candidates before voters ever see their names on a ballot.

The result is a system where elections happen, but clerical oversight limits what those elections can actually change.

Theocratic Elements and Anti-American Stance

Theocracy in Iran isn't just symbolic. Sharia law forms the basis of the legal system and shapes social policies on everything from dress codes to criminal punishment. Clerical bodies wield real power: the Assembly of Experts, for instance, has the authority to appoint and theoretically remove the Supreme Leader.

Anti-Americanism became a central pillar of revolutionary ideology, rooted in specific historical grievances:

• The U.S.-backed 1953 coup that overthrew Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh and restored the Shah to power
• Decades of American support for the Shah's authoritarian rule

Khomeini's government branded the United States the "Great Satan," framing it as the primary adversary of the Islamic Republic. This rhetoric translated into concrete actions, most dramatically the 1979 embassy hostage crisis, in which Iranian students held 52 American diplomats for 444 days. Iran also channeled support toward anti-U.S. groups across the region, making hostility to American influence a defining feature of its foreign policy.

Domestic Challenges

Revolutionary Guard and Internal Security

The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) was originally created to protect the revolution from internal and external threats. Over the decades, it grew into something far more expansive.

• The IRGC operates as a parallel military, with its own ground forces, air force, and navy, separate from Iran's regular armed forces.
• It oversees internal security through the Basij militia, a volunteer paramilitary force used to enforce social order and suppress protests.
• The IRGC expanded heavily into Iran's economy, controlling significant portions of the oil, construction, and telecommunications sectors. This economic power reinforces its political influence.
• Abroad, the IRGC's Quds Force conducts operations in Lebanon, Iraq, and Syria, projecting Iranian influence across the region.

The IRGC's role in suppressing dissent makes it one of the most controversial institutions in the Islamic Republic. Critics argue it functions less as a guardian of the revolution and more as a tool for maintaining the regime's grip on power.

Green Movement and Popular Unrest

The Green Movement erupted after the disputed 2009 presidential election, when official results declared Mahmoud Ahmadinejad the winner by a wide margin. Opposition candidates and their supporters alleged widespread fraud.

What followed were the largest protests Iran had seen since 1979:

• Millions demonstrated in Tehran and other major cities, adopting green as their symbolic color (representing both Islam and hope for reform).
• Protesters used social media to organize and share footage with the outside world, making this one of the first major "social media uprisings."
• The government responded with a violent crackdown: security forces killed dozens of protesters, arrested thousands, and placed opposition leaders Mir-Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi under house arrest, where they remained for years.

The Green Movement revealed a deep fault line in Iranian society. Younger, urban Iranians increasingly pushed for political reform and greater personal freedoms, while the conservative establishment used its control of the security apparatus to hold the line. The movement was ultimately crushed, but the underlying discontent it exposed did not disappear.

International Relations

Iran-Iraq War and Regional Conflicts

The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) profoundly shaped Iran's foreign policy and military thinking. Saddam Hussein invaded in September 1980, expecting a quick victory against a revolutionary government still consolidating power. Instead, the war dragged on for eight years, becoming the longest conventional conflict of the twentieth century.

Key aspects of the war and its aftermath:

• Iran relied on human wave tactics and mobilized large numbers of volunteers (including Basij members, some very young), suffering massive casualties. Estimates put total deaths on both sides at over one million.
• Iraq's use of missile attacks on Iranian cities pushed Iran to develop its own ballistic missile program, a capability that remains central to its military strategy today.
• The war ended in a UN-brokered ceasefire in 1988 with no territorial changes, leaving both countries economically devastated. Khomeini famously compared accepting the ceasefire to "drinking poison."
• After the war, Iran worked to expand its regional influence, particularly in post-2003 Iraq (where it built ties with Shia political factions) and through its support for Hezbollah in Lebanon, which it had helped establish during the war itself.

Nuclear Program and International Sanctions

Iran's nuclear program actually began under the Shah in the 1970s with American support. After the revolution, the program continued and gradually became one of the most contentious issues in international politics.

The timeline of escalation:

1. Iran insisted its nuclear program was for peaceful energy purposes, but enrichment activities raised suspicions about weapons development.
2. In 2005, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) found Iran in non-compliance with the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
3. The UN Security Council imposed sanctions starting in 2006, followed by additional U.S. and EU sanctions targeting Iran's oil exports and banking sector.
4. These sanctions severely damaged Iran's economy, contributing to high inflation, rising unemployment, and a sharp depreciation of the Iranian rial.
5. In 2015, Iran and six world powers (the U.S., UK, France, Germany, Russia, and China) reached the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA). Iran agreed to limit its uranium enrichment and allow inspections in exchange for sanctions relief.
6. In 2018, the U.S. under President Trump withdrew from the JCPOA and reimposed sanctions, arguing the deal didn't go far enough in addressing Iran's missile program and regional activities. Iran subsequently began exceeding the deal's enrichment limits.

The nuclear issue remains unresolved and continues to shape Iran's relationships with both Western powers and its regional neighbors.