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History of the Middle East – 1800 to Present
Unit 2 Overview: Ottoman Decline and European Imperialism
2.1 Ottoman reforms and modernization efforts
2.2 European economic and political penetration
2.3 The Eastern Question and Ottoman decline

The Ottoman Empire faced mounting pressure from European powers in the 19th century. To counter this threat, Ottoman rulers launched a series of reforms aimed at modernizing the military, government, and society. These efforts ranged from Selim III's early attempts to Mahmud II's sweeping changes.

The Tanzimat period marked a significant shift towards Westernization and equality. However, these reforms faced resistance from conservative elements and struggled with implementation. The Young Ottoman movement and constitutional efforts sought to further modernize the empire, but ultimately gave way to Abdul Hamid II's autocratic rule.

Early Ottoman Reforms

Selim III's Nizam-i Cedid

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  • Nizam-i Cedid introduced new military and administrative reforms in late 18th century
  • Selim III initiated modernization efforts to strengthen Ottoman Empire against European powers
  • Established new army corps trained in modern European military tactics and weaponry
  • Created new tax system to fund reforms and reduce financial dependence on traditional military classes
  • Faced resistance from Janissaries and conservative religious establishment
  • Ultimately led to Selim III's deposition in 1807 due to opposition from traditional power structures

Mahmud II's Centralization Efforts

  • Mahmud II continued reformist policies after Selim III's deposition
  • Abolished Janissary corps in 1826 (Auspicious Incident) replaced with modern military force
  • Centralized government administration reduced power of provincial governors
  • Implemented Western-style education system established new schools for civil servants
  • Introduced new dress codes to modernize appearance of Ottoman officials
  • Faced challenges from conservative elements and regional rebellions (Greek War of Independence)

Tanzimat Reforms and Modernization

  • Tanzimat period (1839-1876) marked significant reforms in Ottoman governance and society
  • Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif of 1839 proclaimed equality before the law for all Ottoman subjects
  • Hatt-ı Hümayun of 1856 reaffirmed principles of equality and extended rights to non-Muslim subjects
  • Implemented new legal codes based on European models (French Penal Code)
  • Reorganized provincial administration to improve efficiency and reduce corruption
  • Established new institutions for education, healthcare, and public works
  • Faced challenges in implementation due to financial constraints and resistance from conservative elements

Constitutional Movements

Young Ottoman Intellectual Movement

  • Young Ottomans emerged in 1860s as intellectual reformist group
  • Advocated for constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system
  • Influenced by European Enlightenment ideas and Islamic reformist thought
  • Key figures included Namık Kemal, İbrahim Şinasi, and Ziya Pasha
  • Utilized newspapers and literary works to spread their ideas (Tasvir-i Efkar newspaper)
  • Criticized Tanzimat reforms as insufficient and overly influenced by European powers

First Constitutional Era and Midhat Pasha

  • Midhat Pasha played crucial role in drafting Ottoman constitution of 1876
  • Constitution established bicameral parliament and limited powers of the sultan
  • First Constitutional Era lasted from 1876 to 1878
  • Introduced concepts of citizenship and civil rights to Ottoman political system
  • Parliament consisted of Chamber of Deputies (elected) and Senate (appointed)
  • Faced challenges from ongoing wars and financial crises

Abdul Hamid II's Autocratic Rule

  • Abdul Hamid II suspended constitution and dissolved parliament in 1878
  • Initiated period of autocratic rule lasting until 1908
  • Continued modernization efforts in education, infrastructure, and military
  • Established extensive censorship and surveillance system to suppress opposition
  • Faced growing discontent from various ethnic and nationalist groups within empire
  • Hamidian massacres of Armenians (1894-1896) further strained relations with minority populations

Young Turk Revolution

Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)

  • Young Turks formed secret societies to oppose Abdul Hamid II's autocratic rule
  • Committee of Union and Progress emerged as dominant Young Turk organization
  • CUP consisted of diverse group of intellectuals, military officers, and bureaucrats
  • Advocated for restoration of constitution and modernization of Ottoman state
  • Influenced by positivist philosophy and nationalist ideologies
  • Key figures included Enver Pasha, Talaat Pasha, and Cemal Pasha

1908 Revolution and Second Constitutional Era

  • Young Turk Revolution in July 1908 forced Abdul Hamid II to restore constitution
  • Second Constitutional Era began with reopening of parliament
  • Initial period marked by enthusiasm for political reform and liberalization
  • CUP gradually consolidated power through alliances and political maneuvering
  • Implemented reforms in education, law, and military organization
  • Faced challenges from counter-revolution attempt in 1909 (31 March Incident)

CUP's Increasing Authoritarianism

  • CUP became increasingly authoritarian and centralist after 1913 coup
  • Implemented policies of Ottomanization aimed at creating unified national identity
  • Suppressed opposition groups and minority nationalist movements
  • Entered World War I on side of Central Powers in 1914
  • Faced internal crises and external threats leading to eventual collapse of Ottoman Empire
  • Armenian Genocide (1915-1916) carried out under CUP leadership
  • Defeat in World War I led to occupation of Ottoman territories and eventual establishment of Turkish Republic

Key Terms to Review (32)

Treaty of Paris: The Treaty of Paris refers to a series of agreements that concluded various conflicts, with the most significant for the Middle East occurring in 1856, which ended the Crimean War. This treaty marked a pivotal moment in European diplomacy, significantly impacting the Ottoman Empire’s territorial integrity and its decline while also reshaping power dynamics in the region.
Treaty of Berlin: The Treaty of Berlin, signed in 1878, was a diplomatic agreement that aimed to reorganize the political landscape of the Balkans following the Russo-Turkish War. This treaty addressed the Eastern Question by recognizing the independence and territorial claims of several Balkan states while simultaneously marking a significant moment in the decline of Ottoman authority in Europe, as it diminished their control over their European territories and increased European powers' influence in the region.
Tanzimat Reforms: The Tanzimat Reforms were a series of governmental reforms implemented in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876, aimed at modernizing the state and improving its administrative efficiency. These reforms sought to address issues of corruption, inefficiency, and military weakness, while also responding to European pressures and the declining status of the empire. They included changes in legal systems, educational advancements, and infrastructure improvements that were designed to foster greater integration of non-Muslim subjects and strengthen the central authority.
Crimean War: The Crimean War (1853-1856) was a conflict primarily fought between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain, and Sardinia. It emerged from tensions surrounding the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the 'Eastern Question,' highlighting the geopolitical struggle for power in the region and leading to significant military, social, and political changes.
Committee of Union and Progress: The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) was a political organization founded in the early 20th century that aimed to modernize the Ottoman Empire and promote national unity. It played a crucial role in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, which sought to restore the constitutional monarchy and reduce the sultan's absolute power. The CUP's policies and decisions significantly influenced the Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I, its response to nationalist movements, and its reform efforts during a time of decline.
Enver Pasha: Enver Pasha was a prominent military officer and politician in the late Ottoman Empire, known for his role as a leading figure in the Young Turk movement and as a key member of the ruling triumvirate during World War I. His leadership significantly influenced the empire's entry into the war, its military strategies, and the subsequent events that led to the empire's decline and eventual collapse.
Young Turk Revolution: The Young Turk Revolution, which began in 1908, was a pivotal movement aimed at restoring the constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire, overthrowing the absolute rule of Sultan Abdulhamid II. This revolution marked a significant turning point in Ottoman history, as it initiated a series of reforms and modernization efforts that would influence the empire's political landscape and eventually contribute to its decline. The revolution also laid the groundwork for the rise of nationalism and nation-building efforts that emerged in Turkey and other regions post-empire.
Armenian Genocide: The Armenian Genocide refers to the systematic extermination of 1.5 million Armenians by the Ottoman Empire between 1915 and 1923. This mass killing was part of a broader campaign of ethnic cleansing that coincided with the empire's decline and modernization efforts, which aimed to create a homogenous Turkish nation-state.
Second Constitutional Era: The Second Constitutional Era refers to the period in the Ottoman Empire from 1908 to 1920, marked by the restoration of the constitution and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. This era aimed to modernize the empire's political structure, promote civic rights, and counteract the autocratic rule that characterized the preceding years. It was a significant moment for Ottoman reforms and modernization efforts, as it involved participation from various political groups and an increased role for citizens in governance.
Ottomanization: Ottomanization refers to the process of adopting Ottoman cultural, social, and administrative practices within the diverse populations of the Ottoman Empire. This term is significant in understanding how the empire sought to integrate various ethnic groups, unify its diverse populace, and strengthen centralized authority through reforms and modernization efforts that began in the 19th century. It reflects both the empire's attempts to modernize and its challenges in managing a vast and multicultural state amidst growing nationalism and external pressures.
Cemal Pasha: Cemal Pasha was an influential Ottoman military officer and politician, best known for his role during the late Ottoman Empire's modernization efforts and involvement in World War I. He served as the governor of Syria and played a critical role in implementing various reforms aimed at modernizing the empire, aligning with the broader Ottoman reforms and modernization efforts that sought to adapt to changing political and social conditions.
Hamidian Massacres: The Hamidian Massacres were a series of violent attacks against the Armenian population in the Ottoman Empire between 1894 and 1896, ordered by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. These events occurred in response to growing demands for reform and greater autonomy by the Armenians, who were seen as a threat to the sultan's authority and the stability of the empire. The massacres resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Armenians and marked a significant moment in the history of ethnic tensions within the Ottoman Empire, highlighting both the brutality of state power and the struggles for reform during this period.
First constitutional era: The first constitutional era refers to a period in the late 19th century when the Ottoman Empire introduced its first constitution in 1876, marking a significant shift towards modernization and reform. This era aimed to create a more representative government and addressed issues of governance, civil rights, and administrative reform, reflecting the empire's struggle to adapt to the changing political landscape and internal challenges.
Midhat Pasha: Midhat Pasha was a prominent Ottoman statesman and reformer known for his influential role in the modernization efforts of the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century. He is best recognized for his involvement in the promulgation of the 1876 Constitution, which aimed to introduce a parliamentary system and promote civil liberties. His reforms were part of broader initiatives to revitalize the empire in response to internal decay and external pressures, seeking to adopt Western ideas and practices.
Young Ottoman Movement: The Young Ottoman Movement was a political and intellectual movement in the Ottoman Empire during the late 19th century that aimed to promote modernization, constitutional government, and reforms based on Western principles. This movement sought to address the empire's decline by advocating for a constitutional monarchy, civil liberties, and educational reforms, which were essential components of the broader modernization efforts within the empire.
Abdul Hamid II: Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1876 to 1909. His rule was marked by significant attempts at reform and modernization within the empire, alongside a strong inclination towards authoritarian governance. While he initiated various modernization efforts, his later years were characterized by resistance to constitutionalism and political dissent, illustrating the tension between modernization and traditional Ottoman authority.
Talaat Pasha: Talaat Pasha was a prominent Ottoman statesman and one of the key leaders of the Young Turk movement, serving as the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1917 until 1918. He played a critical role in the Ottoman Empire's modernization efforts and is infamously associated with the Armenian Genocide during World War I, which highlighted the darker aspects of his policies aimed at consolidating power and creating a homogenous national identity.
Selim III: Selim III was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807, known for his ambitious reform efforts aimed at modernizing the empire and strengthening its military. His reign marked a significant turning point as he sought to introduce Western-inspired changes within a traditional Islamic framework, addressing both administrative inefficiencies and military shortcomings.
Infrastructure development: Infrastructure development refers to the construction and improvement of essential physical structures and facilities that support economic activities and societal functions. In the context of modernization efforts, it involves enhancing transportation, communication, and utility systems to foster industrial growth and urbanization, particularly significant during periods of reform and transformation.
Cultural assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process through which individuals or groups from one culture adopt the customs, values, and behaviors of another culture, often leading to the gradual loss of their original cultural identity. This phenomenon can occur voluntarily or involuntarily, influenced by factors such as migration, colonization, and social integration. In the context of modernization efforts, cultural assimilation played a key role as the Ottoman Empire sought to modernize and unify its diverse population under a more centralized identity.
Intellectual Movements: Intellectual movements refer to collective efforts by groups of thinkers and writers to challenge, reform, or redefine societal norms, values, and knowledge systems. These movements often emerge in response to political, social, and economic changes, influencing ideologies and cultural developments. In the context of modernization efforts, these movements played a critical role in shaping reform agendas and fostering new ideas that sought to address the complexities of change within societies.
Greek War of Independence: The Greek War of Independence was a successful struggle between 1821 and 1830 for independence from the Ottoman Empire, marking the beginning of the modern Greek state. This conflict emerged from a backdrop of rising nationalist sentiments among Greeks and inspired other nationalist movements in the Balkans, leading to significant reforms within the Ottoman Empire as it grappled with internal dissent and external pressures.
Legal Reforms: Legal reforms refer to the systematic changes made to laws and legal structures to modernize and improve a legal system, making it more efficient, equitable, and aligned with contemporary values. In the context of the Ottoman Empire, these reforms were crucial as they aimed to modernize the state and integrate Western legal principles while addressing issues like corruption and inefficiency in the existing system.
Educational reforms: Educational reforms refer to a series of changes and improvements made to the educational systems aimed at enhancing access, quality, and relevance of education. In the context of the Ottoman Empire, these reforms were part of broader modernization efforts that sought to update traditional practices, align education with Western standards, and produce a more skilled and educated populace to support a rapidly changing society.
Industrialization: Industrialization is the process of transforming economies from primarily agrarian to one based on the manufacturing of goods and services. This shift leads to increased production, urbanization, and changes in labor dynamics, significantly impacting societal structures and economic practices. In the context of the Middle East, it plays a crucial role in the decline of traditional power structures and influences modernization efforts in the region.
Centralization: Centralization refers to the concentration of administrative power and authority within a single, central entity or governing body. This process often involves the unification of various political, economic, and social structures to create a more cohesive and efficient system of governance. In the context of reforms and modernization efforts, centralization played a crucial role in enhancing state control, improving bureaucratic efficiency, and fostering national identity within the Ottoman Empire.
Westernization: Westernization refers to the process by which non-Western societies adopt Western culture, technology, and ideas, often resulting in significant social, political, and economic changes. This phenomenon is driven by various factors, including colonialism, globalization, and modernization efforts, leading to a complex interplay between traditional values and new influences.
Secularization: Secularization refers to the process by which religious institutions, practices, and beliefs lose their social significance and influence over time. This process often involves the separation of religion from political and public life, leading to a more secular society where religion plays a less central role in governance and daily affairs. In the context of major historical transformations, secularization reflects broader changes in state and society, particularly during periods of modernization and nation-building.
Nizam-ı cedid: Nizam-ı cedid, meaning 'new order,' refers to a series of military and administrative reforms initiated by Sultan Selim III in the late 18th century as part of the Ottoman Empire's broader modernization efforts. This reform movement aimed to modernize the army and centralize the administration in response to internal challenges and external pressures from European powers, ultimately marking a significant shift in the empire's approach to governance and military organization.
Mahmud II: Mahmud II was the 30th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1808 to 1839, and is best known for his extensive reforms aimed at modernizing the empire and curtailing the power of traditional elites. His reign marked a pivotal period of transition within the Ottoman state as he sought to implement Western-inspired changes in administration, military, and education, laying the groundwork for further modernization efforts in the 19th century.
Sultan Abdulmejid: Sultan Abdulmejid was the 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1839 to 1861. His rule is marked by significant reforms aimed at modernizing the empire and addressing internal issues through a series of initiatives known as the Tanzimat, which sought to centralize and streamline governance, enhance military capabilities, and promote economic development.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often leading to the desire for national independence or self-governance. It plays a significant role in shaping modern political landscapes and has influenced movements for independence, reform, and identity across the Middle East, often as a response to foreign domination and internal dynamics.
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2.2 European economic and political penetration