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History of the Middle East – 1800 to Present
Table of Contents
Unit 4 Overview: Interwar Middle East: Mandates and Nationalism
4.1 The mandate system and its implementation
4.2 Nation-building in Turkey, Iran, and the Arab states
4.3 The growth of Arab, Turkish, and Iranian nationalism
4.4 Zionism and the Jewish-Arab conflict in Palestine

The interwar period saw the rise of Zionism and growing tensions in Palestine. Jewish immigration waves and British support for a Jewish homeland clashed with Arab nationalist aspirations, leading to escalating conflict and violence.

British attempts to balance competing interests through policy shifts failed to resolve the situation. Zionist military organizations emerged, while Arab resistance intensified, setting the stage for further conflict in the region.

Early Zionism and British Support

Origins and Development of Zionism

  • Theodor Herzl founded modern political Zionism in 1896 with his book "Der Judenstaat" (The Jewish State)
  • Herzl advocated for the creation of a Jewish homeland to address antisemitism and assimilation
  • First Zionist Congress convened in Basel, Switzerland in 1897 established the World Zionist Organization
  • Congress adopted the Basel Program aimed at establishing a Jewish home in Palestine
  • Aliyah refers to waves of Jewish immigration to Palestine beginning in the 1880s
    • First Aliyah (1882-1903) brought approximately 35,000 Jews to Ottoman Palestine
    • Second Aliyah (1904-1914) saw an influx of 40,000 more Jewish immigrants

British Support for Zionism

  • Balfour Declaration issued by British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour in 1917
  • Declaration expressed British support for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people"
  • Motivated by strategic interests in the Middle East during World War I
  • Conflicted with earlier British promises of Arab independence (McMahon-Hussein Correspondence)
  • Laid groundwork for increased Jewish immigration and land purchases in Palestine

Arab Resistance and Escalating Conflict

Arab Leadership and Opposition

  • Hajj Amin al-Husseini emerged as a prominent Palestinian Arab nationalist leader in the 1920s
  • Appointed Grand Mufti of Jerusalem by British authorities in 1921
  • Al-Husseini mobilized Arab opposition to Zionist immigration and land acquisition
  • Formed the Arab Higher Committee in 1936 to coordinate Palestinian Arab political activities
  • 1929 Palestine riots marked a significant escalation in Arab-Jewish violence
    • Triggered by disputes over access to the Western Wall in Jerusalem
    • Resulted in the deaths of 133 Jews and 116 Arabs

The Great Arab Revolt

  • 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine represented the most sustained Palestinian Arab nationalist uprising
  • Began as a general strike against British rule and Jewish immigration
  • Evolved into an armed rebellion against British authorities and Zionist settlements
  • British responded with harsh military measures, including collective punishment and executions
  • Revolt weakened Palestinian Arab leadership and strengthened Zionist military capabilities
  • Resulted in over 5,000 Arab, 400 Jewish, and 200 British fatalities

British Responses and Zionist Militancy

British Policy Shifts

  • Peel Commission appointed by British government in 1936 to investigate causes of unrest
  • Commission's 1937 report recommended partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states
    • Proposed Jewish state would comprise 20% of Mandate territory
    • Arab state would be united with Transjordan
    • Jerusalem and Bethlehem would remain under British control
  • Partition plan rejected by Arab leadership and accepted with reservations by Zionist Congress
  • White Paper of 1939 marked a significant shift in British policy
    • Limited Jewish immigration to 75,000 over five years
    • Restricted Jewish land purchases in most of Palestine
    • Proposed an independent Palestinian state within 10 years
    • Rejected by both Arab and Zionist leaders

Zionist Military Organization

  • Haganah emerged as the main Zionist paramilitary organization in the 1920s
  • Initially focused on defending Jewish settlements from Arab attacks
  • Expanded its role during the Arab Revolt, developing offensive capabilities
  • Established the Palmach elite strike force in 1941
  • More radical Zionist militant groups formed in opposition to British policies
    • Irgun (1931) and Lehi (1940) conducted armed operations against British and Arab targets
  • Zionist militancy intensified following World War II, leading to increased conflict with British authorities

Key Terms to Review (23)

Palmach: The Palmach was an elite military force established in 1941 as part of the Haganah, the primary Jewish paramilitary organization in British Mandate Palestine. It played a crucial role in the Jewish struggle for statehood, particularly during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and became a symbol of Jewish resistance and military capability in the face of the Jewish-Arab conflict.
White Paper of 1939: The White Paper of 1939 was a British government policy document that outlined new restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine and proposed limiting Jewish land purchases. It was significant as it marked a shift in British policy towards the conflicting demands of Jewish and Arab populations in Palestine, aiming to find a compromise to quell tensions amid rising violence.
Partition Plan: The partition plan refers to a proposal put forward by the United Nations in 1947 to divide Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem designated as an international city. This plan aimed to address the ongoing conflict between Jewish and Arab communities in the region, arising from the Zionist movement and growing tensions over land and governance. The partition plan was significant because it represented an international effort to resolve disputes and establish a framework for peace amidst escalating violence.
McMahon-Hussein Correspondence: The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence was a series of letters exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon, the British High Commissioner in Egypt, and Sharif Hussein bin Ali of Mecca during World War I. These letters promised the Arab leaders support for independence from the Ottoman Empire in exchange for their revolt against Ottoman rule, laying the groundwork for future Arab nationalism and significantly influencing the geopolitical landscape in the Middle East.
Arab Higher Committee: The Arab Higher Committee was established in 1936 as the principal political organization representing Arab interests in Palestine. Formed in response to growing tensions between Jewish and Arab communities, the committee aimed to unify various Arab factions to address political issues, particularly the impact of Zionism and British colonial policies in the region. It played a pivotal role in articulating Arab opposition to Jewish immigration and land purchases, advocating for Palestinian rights and self-determination during a period marked by escalating conflict.
Second aliyah: The second aliyah refers to the wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine that occurred between 1904 and 1914, driven largely by factors such as persecution in Eastern Europe and the desire for a national homeland. This period marked a significant shift in the nature of Zionist settlement, with immigrants focusing on agricultural work and establishing cooperative farms, known as kibbutzim, which were central to the development of a Jewish presence in the region.
Western Wall: The Western Wall, also known as the Wailing Wall, is a sacred site in Jerusalem and a remnant of the Second Temple, destroyed in 70 CE. It holds immense significance for Jews as a place of prayer and pilgrimage, serving as a symbol of Jewish resilience and connection to their historical homeland, while also being intertwined with the complex dynamics of religious identity and conflict in the region.
1929 Palestine Riots: The 1929 Palestine Riots were a series of violent confrontations between Jewish and Arab communities in Palestine, primarily centered around the Western Wall in Jerusalem. Triggered by rising tensions over religious sites and fueled by nationalist sentiments, these riots resulted in significant loss of life and deepened the existing divisions between the two communities. The events marked a turning point in the Jewish-Arab conflict and highlighted the growing animosity fueled by competing national identities and aspirations in the region.
Peel Commission: The Peel Commission was a British Royal Commission established in 1936 to investigate the causes of unrest in Palestine and to propose solutions to the ongoing Jewish-Arab conflict. It is significant for being the first official body to recommend the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, reflecting the growing tensions between the two communities and the complexities of British colonial governance in the region.
Hajj Amin al-Husseini: Hajj Amin al-Husseini was a prominent Arab nationalist and Muslim leader in Palestine during the early 20th century, best known for his role as the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem. His leadership was significant during a time when tensions between Jews and Arabs in Palestine were escalating, particularly as Zionism gained momentum and Jewish immigration increased. Al-Husseini's actions and policies played a crucial role in shaping Arab resistance to Jewish settlement and British colonial rule in the region.
Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem is the highest religious authority for Muslims in Palestine, responsible for interpreting Islamic law and overseeing religious affairs. This position gained significant political influence during the early 20th century, particularly in relation to the Zionist movement and the growing Jewish-Arab conflict over Palestine, as the Grand Mufti became a central figure in advocating for Arab nationalism and opposing Jewish immigration.
Great Arab Revolt: The Great Arab Revolt was a military uprising that took place from 1916 to 1918, primarily against the Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of the Arab world at the time. This revolt aimed to achieve independence for Arab peoples and was supported by the British, who sought to weaken Ottoman control during World War I. The revolt is significant as it set the stage for the post-war political landscape in the Middle East and had lasting effects on Arab nationalism and the eventual Jewish-Arab conflict in Palestine.
First aliyah: The first aliyah refers to the wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine that occurred between 1882 and 1903, driven by rising anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe and the desire to establish a Jewish homeland. This migration marked a significant early phase in the Zionist movement, setting the stage for future Jewish settlement in the region and contributing to the tensions between Jewish immigrants and the local Arab population.
Basel Program: The Basel Program was a political manifesto adopted in 1897 at the First Zionist Congress held in Basel, Switzerland. It aimed to establish a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine and laid the foundation for the modern Zionist movement, emphasizing the need for Jewish immigration and settlement in the region. This program was pivotal as it galvanized support among Jews worldwide and set the agenda for future Zionist activities, ultimately influencing the Jewish-Arab conflict in Palestine.
Aliyah: Aliyah refers to the immigration of Jewish people to the land of Israel, particularly during the 19th and 20th centuries. This movement was motivated by the desire to escape persecution and establish a national homeland, which became a foundational aspect of the Zionist movement. The term literally means 'ascent' in Hebrew, symbolizing both a physical journey and a spiritual elevation associated with returning to the ancestral homeland.
World Zionist Organization: The World Zionist Organization (WZO) is an international organization founded in 1897 to promote the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Its formation was pivotal in uniting various Zionist movements and laying the groundwork for Jewish migration to Palestine, significantly influencing the Jewish-Arab conflict in the region as aspirations for statehood intensified.
Der Judenstaat: Der Judenstaat, or 'The Jewish State,' is a political pamphlet written by Theodor Herzl in 1896, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine as a solution to anti-Semitism in Europe. This work is a foundational text of modern Zionism, arguing that Jews should have their own nation where they can freely express their identity and live without persecution. Herzl's vision galvanized support for the Zionist movement and highlighted the urgent need for a Jewish homeland amidst rising anti-Jewish sentiment.
Theodor Herzl: Theodor Herzl was an Austrian journalist and playwright, widely recognized as the founder of modern political Zionism. His advocacy for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine arose in response to growing anti-Semitism in Europe and aimed to address the Jewish question through political means, rather than merely cultural or religious approaches. Herzl's vision and efforts laid the groundwork for the eventual establishment of Israel, influencing both Jewish-Arab relations and international diplomacy regarding Palestine.
Balfour Declaration: The Balfour Declaration was a statement issued by the British government in 1917 expressing support for the establishment of a 'national home for the Jewish people' in Palestine. This declaration played a critical role in shaping the modern Jewish-Arab conflict and was seen as a significant step in the Zionist movement, deeply intertwining with the growth of nationalism in the region.
Lehi: Lehi, also known as the Stern Gang, was a Zionist paramilitary organization founded in 1940 in British Mandate Palestine. It aimed to establish a Jewish state and used violent tactics against British authorities and Arab populations to achieve its goals. This group's actions and ideologies played a significant role in shaping the context of Israel's creation and the subsequent Arab-Israeli conflict, especially during the tumultuous period leading up to and following the establishment of Israel in 1948.
Zionism: Zionism is a nationalist movement that emerged in the late 19th century, aimed at establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine. It arose as a response to widespread anti-Semitism in Europe and sought to create a safe haven for Jews, ultimately leading to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. This movement has deeply influenced the Jewish-Arab conflict and the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East.
Irgun: Irgun was a Jewish paramilitary organization that operated in Mandatory Palestine between 1931 and 1948, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state through armed struggle. Founded as a breakaway faction from the Haganah, Irgun employed more aggressive tactics, including bombings and attacks against British forces and Arab targets, to further its aims. The group played a crucial role in the events leading to the creation of Israel and the ensuing Arab-Israeli conflict.
Haganah: Haganah was a Jewish paramilitary organization in British Mandatory Palestine, founded in 1920 to defend Jewish communities against Arab attacks and to facilitate Jewish immigration. It played a crucial role in the establishment of Israel and during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, where it transitioned into the core of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Haganah's activities, particularly in the context of Zionism and the Jewish-Arab conflict, set the groundwork for both the state of Israel and the ongoing tensions in the region.