3.3 The Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Balfour Declaration

World War I reshaped the Middle East, ending Ottoman rule and ushering in European dominance. Secret agreements like Sykes-Picot carved up the region, while the Balfour Declaration promised a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

These deals conflicted with promises of Arab independence, setting the stage for future conflicts. The war's aftermath saw the rise of Arab nationalism and the creation of new states under European mandates.

Secret Agreements During WWI

Diplomatic Negotiations and Key Figures

• Sykes-Picot Agreement negotiated between Britain and France in 1916 divided Ottoman territories in the Middle East into spheres of influence
• Mark Sykes represented British interests while François Georges-Picot advocated for French claims during negotiations
• Agreement partitioned Ottoman-controlled areas of Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Palestine into British and French administered regions
• Secret diplomacy characterized negotiations conducted without involvement of local Arab populations or Ottoman authorities

Hussein-McMahon Correspondence and Arab Revolt

• Series of letters exchanged between Sharif Hussein of Mecca and British High Commissioner Sir Henry McMahon from 1915-1916
• Correspondence discussed potential Arab support for Allied war effort against Ottomans in exchange for post-war independence
• Ambiguity in territorial promises led to conflicting interpretations by Arab and British sides after World War I
• Negotiations contributed to launching of Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule in June 1916

Impact on Middle East and World War I

• Secret agreements shaped post-war territorial divisions in Middle East without consideration of local ethnic or religious demographics
• Conflicted with wartime promises of Arab independence made to encourage revolt against Ottoman Empire
• Agreements revealed after Russian Revolution in 1917 damaged Allied credibility and complicated peace negotiations
• Legacy of secret diplomacy contributed to instability and conflict in Middle East throughout 20th century

British Support for Zionism

The Balfour Declaration and Its Origins

• Balfour Declaration issued on November 2, 1917 by British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, a leader of British Jewish community
• Declaration expressed British government support for establishment of "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine
• Motivated by desire to gain Jewish support for Allied cause in World War I and secure British influence in strategically important region
• Reflected growing influence of Zionist movement advocating for Jewish return to ancestral homeland in Palestine

Zionism and British Policy

• Zionism emerged as political movement in late 19th century advocating for establishment of Jewish state in historic land of Israel
• Theodor Herzl founded World Zionist Organization in 1897 to promote Jewish immigration to Palestine and development of Jewish institutions
• British support for Zionism aligned with strategic interests in maintaining influence in Middle East after expected collapse of Ottoman Empire
• Declaration created tension between British commitments to Zionists and promises of Arab independence made during Hussein-McMahon Correspondence

Implementation and Consequences

• British Mandate for Palestine established in 1920 by League of Nations to administer former Ottoman territories
• Mandate incorporated Balfour Declaration into its terms, committing Britain to facilitating Jewish immigration and settlement
• Increased Jewish immigration to Palestine led to growing tensions with local Arab population
• Competing nationalisms and conflicting British promises set stage for long-term conflict between Jews and Arabs in Palestine

Partition and Mandates

French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon

• French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon established by League of Nations in 1923 following World War I
• Mandate divided region into separate states of Syria and Lebanon, with Lebanon designed to have Christian majority
• French administration faced resistance from Arab nationalists seeking independence and unity
• Mandate lasted until 1943 for Lebanon and 1946 for Syria, shaping modern borders and political structures

Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

• Ottoman Empire entered World War I on side of Central Powers in 1914
• Allied victory in 1918 led to partition of Ottoman territories in Middle East and elsewhere
• Treaty of Sèvres in 1920 initially imposed harsh terms on Ottoman Empire, later revised by Treaty of Lausanne in 1923
• Collapse of Ottoman rule ended centuries of imperial control over diverse ethnic and religious communities in Middle East

Rise of Arab Nationalism

• Arab nationalism emerged as political force in late 19th and early 20th centuries in response to Ottoman decline and European imperialism
• Movement sought to unite Arabs based on shared language, culture, and history rather than religious identity
• Arab Revolt of 1916-1918 against Ottoman rule fueled by promises of independence from Allied powers
• Post-war imposition of European mandates and partition of region frustrated Arab nationalist aspirations for unity and self-determination