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History of the Middle East – 1800 to Present
Table of Contents
Unit 1 Overview: Middle East: Geography, Peoples, Religions
1.1 Geographic regions and their significance
1.2 Major ethnic and linguistic groups
1.3 Islam, Judaism, and Christianity in the Middle East
1.4 Historical overview of the region up to 1800

The Middle East is home to three major Abrahamic religions: Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Each has deep roots in the region, shaping its culture, politics, and social fabric. Their shared history and overlapping sacred sites have led to both cooperation and conflict over time.

These faiths have distinct beliefs, practices, and holy places. Islam's Five Pillars guide daily life for Muslims, while Judaism centers on the Torah and Shabbat. Eastern Christianity maintains ancient traditions through liturgy and iconography. Understanding these religions is key to grasping the Middle East's complexity.

Core Beliefs and Practices

Five Pillars and Major Islamic Branches

  • Five Pillars of Islam form the foundation of Muslim life and practice
    • Shahada: Declaration of faith in one God and Muhammad as His messenger
    • Salat: Ritual prayer performed five times daily
    • Zakat: Obligatory charitable giving, typically 2.5% of one's wealth
    • Sawm: Fasting during the month of Ramadan
    • Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime if physically and financially able
  • Sunni Islam represents the majority branch of Islam
    • Follows the teachings and examples of Prophet Muhammad and his companions
    • Emphasizes consensus of the Muslim community in religious matters
    • Recognizes the first four caliphs as legitimate successors to Muhammad
  • Shia Islam emerged from a succession dispute after Muhammad's death
    • Believes Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the rightful successor
    • Places greater emphasis on the role of imams as spiritual leaders
    • Observes additional holy days and pilgrimage sites (Karbala)

Judaism and Eastern Christianity

  • Judaism predates both Christianity and Islam in the Middle East
    • Monotheistic faith centered on the belief in one God
    • Torah serves as the primary sacred text
    • Observes Shabbat (day of rest) from Friday evening to Saturday evening
    • Dietary laws (kashrut) govern food preparation and consumption
  • Eastern Orthodox Christianity maintains ancient traditions
    • Emphasizes the role of patriarchs and bishops in church leadership
    • Liturgy conducted in local languages (Greek, Arabic, Slavonic)
    • Iconography plays a significant role in worship and devotion
    • Follows a different calendar for religious holidays than Western Christianity
  • Coptic Christianity represents the indigenous Christian community in Egypt
    • Traces its origins to St. Mark the Evangelist
    • Uses Coptic language in liturgy alongside Arabic
    • Practices strict fasting periods throughout the year
    • Maintains distinct artistic traditions in religious art and architecture

Religious Sites and Populations

Sacred Spaces and Pilgrimage Destinations

  • Jerusalem holds significance for all three Abrahamic faiths
    • Western Wall serves as the holiest site in Judaism
    • Church of the Holy Sepulchre revered in Christianity as the site of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection
    • Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock form the third holiest site in Islam
  • Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia are central to Islamic pilgrimage
    • Mecca houses the Kaaba, the most sacred site in Islam
    • Medina contains the Prophet's Mosque, built over Muhammad's house
  • Other important religious sites across the region
    • Hebron (Cave of the Patriarchs) significant to both Jews and Muslims
    • Nazareth and Bethlehem crucial in Christian tradition
    • Najaf and Karbala in Iraq hold special importance for Shia Muslims

Religious Minorities and Interfaith Dynamics

  • Religious minorities face varying degrees of acceptance and challenges
    • Baha'i faith originated in Iran but faces persecution there
    • Druze communities found in Lebanon, Syria, and Israel maintain a distinct identity
    • Yazidis in Iraq and Syria have faced severe persecution in recent years
  • Interfaith relations fluctuate across time and geography
    • Historical periods of coexistence (convivencia in medieval Spain)
    • Instances of conflict and persecution (expulsion of Jews from various countries)
    • Modern initiatives for dialogue and understanding (A Common Word initiative)
  • Demographic shifts impact religious landscapes
    • Declining Christian populations in many Middle Eastern countries
    • Growth of Muslim communities in traditionally non-Muslim areas
    • Internal migration and refugee movements alter local religious compositions

Key Terms to Review (43)

Hebron: Hebron is a city in the West Bank, significant for its historical and religious importance to Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. It is home to the Cave of the Patriarchs, believed to be the burial site of biblical figures such as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, making it a sacred site for all three religions. The city's rich history and ongoing conflicts also reflect the complexities of religious identity and territorial disputes in the region.
Kaaba: The Kaaba is a sacred structure located in the center of the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is considered the most important site in Islam. It is a cube-shaped building that Muslims face during their prayers, symbolizing unity and the oneness of God. The Kaaba has significant historical and religious ties to both Judaism and Christianity, as it represents a focal point of worship and is linked to the patriarch Abraham.
Church of the Holy Sepulchre: The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a significant Christian site located in Jerusalem, believed to be the place where Jesus was crucified, buried, and resurrected. This site holds great importance for all three Abrahamic faiths—Islam, Judaism, and Christianity—as it is a focal point of pilgrimage and religious devotion, reflecting the intertwining history and heritage of these faiths in the Middle East.
Al-Aqsa Mosque: The Al-Aqsa Mosque is one of the holiest sites in Islam, located in Jerusalem on the Temple Mount. It holds great significance for Muslims as it is believed to be the site where the Prophet Muhammad was transported during the Night Journey, making it a critical point of connection between Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.
Liturgy: Liturgy refers to the set forms of public worship, rituals, and ceremonies that are prescribed in religious traditions. In the context of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, liturgy plays a vital role in the communal and individual expressions of faith, guiding adherents through structured worship practices that reinforce their beliefs and cultural identities.
Dome of the Rock: The Dome of the Rock is an iconic Islamic shrine located in Jerusalem, completed in 691 CE, and it is one of the oldest surviving examples of Islamic architecture. The structure is significant for its religious importance to Islam, as it is believed to be the site where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven during the Night Journey, as well as a revered location for Judaism and Christianity.
Prophet's Mosque: The Prophet's Mosque, also known as Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, is one of the holiest sites in Islam, located in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Built by the Prophet Muhammad himself, it serves as a place of worship and is significant for its historical importance, including being the burial site of Muhammad and a center for the early Muslim community.
Jerusalem: Jerusalem is a city of profound historical and religious significance, revered by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It serves as a central location for religious practices and beliefs, hosting important sites such as the Western Wall for Jews, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre for Christians, and the Al-Aqsa Mosque for Muslims. This city has been a focal point of conflict and reverence throughout history, symbolizing faith, identity, and sovereignty for millions around the world.
Cave of the Patriarchs: The Cave of the Patriarchs, also known as the Cave of Machpelah, is a significant historical and religious site located in Hebron, West Bank. It is believed to be the burial place of key biblical figures, including Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebecca, Jacob, and Leah, making it a sacred site for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Iconography: Iconography refers to the visual images, symbols, and motifs that are used to convey specific meanings or ideas within religious and cultural contexts. In the realm of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity in the Middle East, iconography serves as a means of expressing spiritual beliefs and narratives through art, architecture, and symbolism. Understanding iconography allows for deeper insights into the cultural identity and theological principles of these faiths.
Mecca: Mecca is a city in Saudi Arabia that holds immense religious significance as the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad and the site of the Kaaba, which is the holiest structure in Islam. Every year, millions of Muslims from around the world perform Hajj, a pilgrimage to Mecca that is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, showcasing its central role in Islamic faith and practices while also highlighting its historical connections to Judaism and Christianity.
Medina: Medina is a city in present-day Saudi Arabia that holds great significance in Islamic history as the site where Prophet Muhammad migrated in 622 CE, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The city became the center of the Muslim community and a pivotal location for the early development of Islam, serving as a model for Muslim governance and community life.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity: Eastern Orthodox Christianity is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes the continuity of the original Christian faith and practices, stemming from the Byzantine Empire and the early church. This tradition is characterized by its adherence to the teachings of the ecumenical councils, a sacramental view of salvation, and a rich liturgical life, making it a vital part of the religious landscape in the Middle East.
Bishops: Bishops are senior members of the Christian clergy who typically oversee a group of churches within a specific geographic area, known as a diocese. They play a crucial role in the governance of the Church, serving as spiritual leaders, administrators, and teachers of doctrine. Bishops have historically held significant authority and influence within Christianity, especially in regions where Christianity has been a major religion, such as in parts of the Middle East.
Torah: The Torah is the central reference of the religious Judaic tradition, encompassing the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, also known as the Pentateuch. It is considered the written law of Judaism and holds significant importance in the context of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity as it lays the foundation for their beliefs and practices.
Patriarchs: In the context of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, patriarchs refer to the founding fathers or leaders of the faiths, often considered as key figures who played significant roles in shaping the theological and historical narratives. These patriarchs are central to the beliefs and traditions of these religions, as they are viewed as direct ancestors of the faithful and important models of faith and obedience.
Coptic Christianity: Coptic Christianity is an ancient branch of Christianity that originated in Egypt, primarily associated with the Copts, who are the indigenous Christian population of the country. It represents one of the earliest forms of Christianity, tracing its roots back to the apostolic era and is characterized by its unique theological beliefs and traditions, as well as its distinct liturgical practices. The Coptic Orthodox Church is the largest Christian denomination in Egypt and plays a vital role in the broader religious landscape of the Middle East, especially in relation to Islam and Judaism.
Shabbat: Shabbat is the Jewish day of rest and worship, beginning at sunset on Friday and lasting until nightfall on Saturday. It commemorates God's day of rest after creating the world and is observed with various rituals, including lighting candles, attending synagogue services, and sharing festive meals. Shabbat serves as a crucial element of Jewish identity and cultural continuity, connecting generations of Jews through shared practices and traditions.
Kashrut: Kashrut is the set of Jewish dietary laws that dictate what foods are permissible (kosher) and how they should be prepared and consumed. These laws are deeply rooted in Jewish religious texts and traditions, establishing guidelines regarding the types of animals that can be eaten, the method of slaughter, and the prohibition against mixing meat and dairy products. Understanding kashrut is essential for recognizing the cultural and religious practices within Judaism, as well as its interactions with Islam and Christianity regarding dietary restrictions.
Ali: Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, recognized as the fourth caliph in Sunni Islam and the first imam in Shia Islam. His significance lies in his role in early Islamic history, serving as a close companion of Muhammad and as a key figure in the development of Islamic governance and theological thought.
Sunni Islam: Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, characterized by the belief in the legitimacy of the first four caliphs as rightful successors to the Prophet Muhammad. This branch emphasizes community consensus and tradition, shaping its religious practices and interpretations, which contrasts with Shi'a Islam's focus on the leadership of the Prophet's family.
Hajj: Hajj is the annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, which is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims who are physically and financially able to undertake it at least once in their lifetime. This pilgrimage occurs during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah and involves a series of rituals that commemorate the actions of the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) and his family. Hajj symbolizes unity among Muslims, as millions gather from around the world to perform the same rituals in one sacred location.
Imams: Imams are religious leaders and scholars in Islam who guide the community in spiritual matters, prayer, and the interpretation of Islamic law. They serve not only as leaders of congregational prayers but also as educators and counselors, playing a significant role in maintaining the spiritual and moral fabric of Muslim society.
Shia Islam: Shia Islam is one of the two main branches of Islam, distinguished from Sunni Islam primarily by its belief in the rightful succession of leadership after the Prophet Muhammad. Shia Muslims believe that Ali, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, was the first legitimate imam and leader, leading to a unique theological perspective that emphasizes the importance of the imams as spiritual leaders.
Five Pillars of Islam: The Five Pillars of Islam are the fundamental acts of worship and practice that shape a Muslim's faith and actions. They serve as the foundation of a Muslim's life, guiding their relationship with God, their community, and themselves, which highlights the essential connection between Islam and both Judaism and Christianity in the Middle East.
Sawm: Sawm is the Islamic practice of fasting during the month of Ramadan, where Muslims abstain from food, drink, smoking, and sexual relations from dawn until sunset. This practice is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, which are essential acts of worship that shape a Muslim's faith and practices. Sawm emphasizes self-discipline, spiritual growth, and empathy for those who are less fortunate, fostering a sense of community among Muslims during this holy month.
Zakat: Zakat is a form of almsgiving treated in Islam as a religious obligation and one of the Five Pillars of Islam. It involves donating a portion of one's wealth, typically 2.5% of accumulated savings, to those in need, and it plays a critical role in the economic and social justice framework within Islamic communities. By fulfilling this duty, Muslims aim to purify their wealth, help alleviate poverty, and support community welfare, reflecting key principles found in both Judaism and Christianity regarding charity and social responsibility.
Salat: Salat is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, representing the ritual prayer performed by Muslims five times a day. It is a direct link between the worshipper and Allah, emphasizing discipline, devotion, and community within the Islamic faith. Salat serves as a reminder of the significance of faith in everyday life and reinforces the idea of submission to God, central to Islamic practice.
Islam: Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic faith founded in the 7th century CE by the Prophet Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula. Followers of Islam, known as Muslims, believe that Muhammad is the last prophet in a long line that includes figures like Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. The religion emphasizes submission to the will of Allah (God) and provides a comprehensive way of life through its teachings, which are recorded in the Quran and further elaborated in Hadith literature.
Abrahamic Religions: Abrahamic religions refer to the three major monotheistic faiths of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all of which trace their origins back to the patriarch Abraham. These religions share key beliefs, such as the existence of one God, the importance of ethical conduct, and the significance of prophetic revelations, influencing cultural and historical developments in the Middle East and beyond.
Christianity: Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who is believed to be the Son of God and the savior of humanity. Emerging in the 1st century CE, Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire and eventually became a major religious force in the Middle East, influencing social, political, and cultural developments across the region.
Shahada: The shahada is the Islamic declaration of faith, stating that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is His messenger. This fundamental tenet signifies the core belief in monotheism, establishing the foundation for a Muslim's faith and practice. The shahada not only serves as an individual's personal affirmation of faith but also acts as a public declaration that incorporates one into the Muslim community, thus bridging connections with Judaism and Christianity, which share similar themes of faith and prophecy.
Judaism: Judaism is one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world, characterized by the belief in a single, all-powerful God and a rich cultural heritage rooted in the Hebrew Bible. It serves as the foundation for both Christianity and Islam, influencing their beliefs and practices while sharing key historical and theological narratives with these faiths.
Western Wall: The Western Wall, also known as the Wailing Wall, is a sacred site in Jerusalem and a remnant of the Second Temple, destroyed in 70 CE. It holds immense significance for Jews as a place of prayer and pilgrimage, serving as a symbol of Jewish resilience and connection to their historical homeland, while also being intertwined with the complex dynamics of religious identity and conflict in the region.
Convivencia: Convivencia refers to the coexistence and harmonious interaction of different religious and cultural communities, particularly Muslims, Jews, and Christians, during the medieval period in the Iberian Peninsula. This concept illustrates a unique historical context where these faiths shared knowledge, engaged in dialogue, and collaborated despite their differences, fostering a rich cultural and intellectual environment.
A Common Word Initiative: The A Common Word Initiative is a global effort that aims to foster dialogue and understanding between Muslims and Christians by emphasizing shared values and common beliefs. This initiative emerged in response to rising tensions and misunderstandings between these two major world religions, focusing on mutual respect, cooperation, and the promotion of peace.
Yazidis: Yazidis are a distinct religious and ethnic group originating from the Middle East, primarily found in Iraq, where they follow a unique faith that combines elements of various religions including Islam, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. Their beliefs center around the worship of Melek Taus, the Peacock Angel, who represents good and is often misunderstood by outsiders, leading to significant persecution and sectarian conflict, particularly in recent years.
Nazareth: Nazareth is a city in modern-day Israel, traditionally recognized as the childhood home of Jesus Christ and an important site in Christianity. It is significant in the context of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity due to its religious history and the shared beliefs surrounding Jesus' life and teachings.
Karbala: Karbala is a city in Iraq that is the site of the Battle of Karbala, which took place in 680 CE and is a significant event in Islamic history, particularly for Shia Muslims. This battle resulted in the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, and symbolizes the struggle against tyranny and oppression, making it a cornerstone of Shia identity and belief, while also resonating with broader themes of sacrifice found in Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.
Baha'i Faith: The Baha'i Faith is a monotheistic religion that emerged in the 19th century, founded by Baha'u'llah in Persia (modern-day Iran). It emphasizes the unity of all religions, the oneness of humanity, and the importance of world peace, drawing from the teachings of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity while also advocating for social justice and equality.
Druze: The Druze are a religious and ethnic group that originated in the 11th century in the Levant region, primarily in modern-day Lebanon, Syria, and Israel. They follow a unique faith that combines elements of Islam, Gnosticism, and other philosophical traditions, making them distinct within the broader context of monotheistic religions in the Middle East.
Najaf: Najaf is a city in Iraq that holds great significance in Shia Islam as a major center for religious scholarship and pilgrimage. It is the site of the Imam Ali Mosque, which houses the tomb of Imam Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad, making it a sacred destination for millions of Shia Muslims seeking spiritual guidance and connection to their faith.
Bethlehem: Bethlehem is a historic city located in the West Bank, known primarily as the birthplace of Jesus Christ, making it a significant site in Christianity. It is also important in Judaism as the city associated with King David, whose lineage is central to both Jewish and Christian traditions. Its rich religious significance connects deeply with the narratives of Islam, which also acknowledges Jesus as a prophet.