16.4 Legacy of the Ancient Mediterranean world
4 min read•july 19, 2024
Ancient Mediterranean civilizations left an indelible mark on Western culture. From Greek philosophy and art to and law, their achievements laid the groundwork for countless aspects of modern life.
The legacy of these ancient societies extends far beyond their time. , , and modern legal systems all draw heavily from Greco-Roman foundations, shaping the world we live in today.
Cultural and Intellectual Legacy
Achievements of ancient Mediterranean civilizations
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- Greek philosophy
- Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
- Established the groundwork for Western philosophical thought
- Investigated fundamental questions about ethics, logic, metaphysics, and the nature of knowledge
- Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
- Greek literature
- Epic poetry ( and Odyssey) narrated heroic tales and myths
- Tragedy (works by , , ) explored complex human emotions and moral dilemmas
- Comedy (plays by ) satirized contemporary society and politics
- Greek art and architecture
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- Portrayed the human form in idealized proportions and poses
- Introduced the contrapposto stance, adding naturalism and dynamism to figures
- Architectural orders (, , ) established a vocabulary of decorative elements and proportions
- exemplified the harmony and balance of Greek architectural design (Athens)
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- Roman engineering and infrastructure
- Constructed an extensive network of roads, bridges, and aqueducts facilitating trade and communication
- Developed concrete as a versatile and durable building material enabling large-scale construction
- Perfected the use of arches and domes in structures like the (Rome)
- Greek mathematics and science
- systematized the study of shapes, angles, and spatial relationships
- Archimedes made groundbreaking discoveries in physics, hydrostatics, and mechanical engineering (Syracuse)
- of the universe remained influential until the Scientific Revolution
Greco-Roman influence on Western civilization
- Renaissance art and architecture
- Rediscovered and emulated classical forms, proportions, and themes
- Masters like , , and drew inspiration from ancient works (Italy)
- Enlightenment thought
- and influenced ideas about virtue, happiness, and the role of reason
- , , and 's political philosophies built upon classical notions of democracy, liberty, and (France, England)
- and architecture
- 18th and 19th-century movements revived classical styles and motifs
- and adapted ancient forms to modern contexts (Europe, America)
- Modern philosophy
- Continued to grapple with fundamental questions posed by ancient Greek thinkers
- Existentialism, phenomenology, and engaged with classical ideas in new ways (Germany, France)
Political and Religious Legacy
Roman law in modern systems
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- Implemented a separation of powers among consuls, the senate, and popular assemblies
- Established a system of checks and balances to prevent concentration of power
- Roman law
- codified basic legal principles and procedures (Rome)
- (Justinian's Code) compiled and systematized Roman law
- Served as the foundation for civil law systems in Europe and Latin America
- Influence on modern political thought
- 's writings on and republicanism shaped later ideas about rights and governance
- ' analysis of the Roman constitution as a mixed system influenced Montesquieu's separation of powers
- Legacy in modern legal systems
- Common law and civil law traditions trace their roots to Roman legal principles and practices
- Latin legal terminology (, pro bono, etc.) remains in use today
Christianity's spread after Rome's fall
- Early Christian Church
- saw rapid spread of throughout the Mediterranean world
- Persecuted as a minority religion under the until the 4th century
- Constantine and the legalization of Christianity
- (313 CE) granted religious tolerance and ended persecution
- (325 CE) established orthodox Christian doctrine
- Christianity in the Late Roman Empire
- declared Christianity the official state religion of the empire
- Pagan temples were closed and traditional religious practices prohibited
- and the preservation of classical learning
- established guidelines for monastic life and education (Italy)
- Monastic scriptoria copied and transmitted ancient texts, preserving Greco-Roman knowledge
- Christianization of Europe
- Missionaries converted Germanic tribes, spreading Christianity beyond the former Roman Empire
- united much of Western Europe under a Christian banner
- Christianity as a unifying force in medieval Europe
- Provided a shared religious identity and cultural framework across diverse regions
- The Catholic Church played a central role in politics, education, and social welfare throughout the Middle Ages
Key Terms to Review (48)
Aeschylus: Aeschylus was an ancient Greek playwright, often referred to as the 'Father of Tragedy.' He is known for his significant contributions to the development of drama, particularly through his introduction of a second actor and complex themes in his works. His plays reflect the societal and cultural values of his time, especially during the transition from the Greek Dark Ages to a period of flourishing art and philosophy.
Apostolic Age: The Apostolic Age refers to the period in early Christianity that spans from the life of Jesus Christ to the death of the last Apostle, traditionally understood to be John. This era is significant for the establishment and spread of the Christian faith, as it marks the formation of the early Church and the foundational teachings that would shape Christian doctrine.
Archimedes' Principle: Archimedes' Principle states that any object submerged in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. This principle not only laid the groundwork for understanding buoyancy but also influenced engineering, physics, and various practical applications in the ancient Mediterranean world and beyond.
Aristophanes: Aristophanes was a prominent playwright of ancient Athens, known for his comedic plays that often satirized contemporary politics, society, and cultural issues of his time. His works are essential to understanding the development of Greek drama and the role of theater in reflecting and critiquing Athenian life during the classical period.
Beaux-arts architecture: Beaux-arts architecture is a style that emerged in the late 19th century, characterized by grand and classical elements inspired by ancient Greek and Roman architecture. This architectural approach emphasizes symmetry, rich detailing, and the use of decorative sculptures, reflecting the ideals of beauty and order derived from the Ancient Mediterranean world.
Benedictine Rule: The Benedictine Rule is a set of guidelines for monastic life established by St. Benedict of Nursia in the 6th century. It emphasizes communal living, prayer, work, and study, serving as a foundational text for Western monasticism. This rule played a crucial role in shaping the organization and practices of monastic communities throughout medieval Europe.
Charlemagne's Holy Roman Empire: Charlemagne's Holy Roman Empire was a vast realm in Western and Central Europe that arose during the early Middle Ages, primarily under the leadership of Charlemagne, who ruled from 768 to 814 CE. This empire played a crucial role in shaping medieval Europe, blending Roman, Christian, and Germanic traditions and laying the foundation for future European states.
Christianity: Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who is believed by followers to be the Son of God and the Messiah. Emerging in the 1st century CE within the Roman Empire, it spread rapidly, influencing various aspects of culture, philosophy, and governance throughout the Ancient Mediterranean world and beyond.
Cicero: Cicero was a Roman statesman, orator, and author, known for his significant contributions to Roman politics and philosophy during the late Republic. His writings and speeches have influenced the development of rhetoric and political theory, connecting deeply with themes of law, ethics, and governance that were vital during his time. Cicero's works reflect the cultural and intellectual environment of the Roman Republic, while his legacy continues to resonate throughout history in literature and political thought.
Classical sculpture: Classical sculpture refers to the artistic creations of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, characterized by idealized forms, realistic proportions, and a focus on human anatomy. This form of sculpture played a crucial role in the representation of human figures and conveyed ideals of beauty, heroism, and civic pride, which were central to both Greek and Roman societies.
Corinthian: Corinthian refers to one of the three classical orders of ancient Greek architecture, characterized by its ornate column style featuring a slender profile, a bell-shaped capital adorned with acanthus leaves and scrolls. This style emerged in the late Classical period and became widely popular during the Hellenistic era, influencing later architectural developments across the Mediterranean world.
Corpus juris civilis: The corpus juris civilis, or 'Body of Civil Law,' is a fundamental collection of legal texts and principles compiled under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century. This monumental work served as the basis for legal systems in many European nations and is crucial for understanding the evolution of law in the Ancient Mediterranean world.
Doric: Doric refers to one of the three classical orders of ancient Greek architecture, characterized by its sturdy, fluted columns and a simple, unadorned capital. This architectural style is often associated with strength and masculinity, reflecting the values of the society during its prominence in the Greek world. The Doric order played a significant role in various aspects of Greek culture, influencing not only architecture but also art and literature.
Edict of Milan: The Edict of Milan was a proclamation issued in 313 CE by the Roman emperors Constantine I and Licinius, granting religious tolerance for Christianity and allowing Christians to practice their faith openly without fear of persecution. This edict marked a significant turning point in the history of Christianity, as it facilitated the faith's spread and integration into Roman society, paving the way for its future status as the state religion.
Enlightenment thought: Enlightenment thought refers to a philosophical movement that emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. It challenged established norms and encouraged people to think critically about society, politics, and religion, laying the groundwork for modern democracy and scientific inquiry.
Epicureanism: Epicureanism is a philosophical system founded by Epicurus in the 4th century BCE that teaches the pursuit of happiness through the cultivation of pleasure, wisdom, and friendship while emphasizing a life free from pain and fear. This philosophy emerged in a time when the ancient Mediterranean world was influenced by new ideas and cultural shifts, particularly during the Hellenistic period, encouraging individuals to seek tranquility and mental well-being rather than material wealth or fame.
Euclidean Geometry: Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system that studies the properties and relationships of points, lines, angles, and surfaces in a flat, two-dimensional space. It is founded on the postulates and theorems laid out by the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, serving as the basis for classical geometry and influencing various fields such as art, architecture, and science.
Euripides: Euripides was a prominent ancient Greek playwright, known for his innovative and often provocative approach to tragedy. His works frequently challenged traditional norms and explored complex characters, particularly focusing on the emotional and psychological aspects of human experience.
First Council of Nicaea: The First Council of Nicaea, convened in 325 CE by Emperor Constantine I, was the first ecumenical council of Christian bishops. Its primary aim was to address divisions within the early Church, particularly regarding the nature of Christ and the Arian controversy, which questioned the divinity of Jesus. This council laid the groundwork for Christian orthodoxy and established the Nicene Creed, which became a foundational statement of faith for Christians and influenced the legacy of the Ancient Mediterranean world.
Greek Revival: Greek Revival refers to a major architectural and artistic movement that began in the late 18th century and peaked in the mid-19th century, characterized by a renewed interest in the classical styles of ancient Greece. This movement reflected a fascination with democracy, philosophy, and aesthetics of the ancient world, influencing various cultural expressions, including architecture, literature, and the visual arts.
Habeas corpus: Habeas corpus is a legal principle that protects individuals from arbitrary detention by ensuring they have the right to appear before a court to challenge the legality of their imprisonment. This principle is foundational in many legal systems, symbolizing the protection of personal liberty and the rule of law, as it prevents unlawful confinement and ensures that the government cannot hold someone without just cause.
Homer's Iliad: Homer's Iliad is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to the poet Homer, detailing the events of the Trojan War, particularly focusing on the wrath of Achilles. This work is a foundational text for understanding Greek identity, culture, and values, reflecting the heroic ideals and the complexities of human emotion, honor, and fate.
Homer's Odyssey: Homer's Odyssey is an epic poem attributed to the ancient Greek poet Homer, detailing the adventurous journey of Odysseus as he attempts to return home to Ithaca after the Trojan War. This work is a cornerstone of Ancient Greek literature and significantly influenced art, storytelling, and cultural values, illustrating themes of heroism, loyalty, and the struggle against adversity.
Ionic: Ionic refers to a type of bond that forms when one atom transfers electrons to another, creating charged ions that attract each other due to their opposite charges. This concept is essential in understanding the materials and influences during various periods, including how societies interacted through trade and cultural exchange, shaping their development.
Leonardo da Vinci: Leonardo da Vinci was a renowned Italian polymath of the Renaissance era, known for his contributions to art, science, and engineering. He is celebrated for masterpieces like the 'Mona Lisa' and 'The Last Supper,' which reflect his mastery of techniques such as perspective and chiaroscuro, blending scientific observation with artistic expression. His legacy extends beyond art into fields like anatomy, engineering, and hydraulics, showcasing a holistic approach to knowledge that has inspired countless generations.
Locke: John Locke was an influential English philosopher of the 17th century, known for his contributions to political philosophy and theories of knowledge. His ideas about natural rights, government by consent, and the social contract greatly influenced Enlightenment thought and laid the groundwork for modern democratic systems, connecting to the legacy of the Ancient Mediterranean world through its impacts on governance and political structures.
Michelangelo: Michelangelo was a renowned Italian Renaissance artist, sculptor, and architect, celebrated for his masterpieces that defined the era. His work reflects the influences of ancient Mediterranean art and culture, showcasing a deep understanding of human anatomy and emotion, which were inspired by classical antiquity. Michelangelo's contributions, particularly in sculpture and painting, left an indelible mark on the legacy of art and architecture during the Renaissance and beyond.
Monasticism: Monasticism is a religious way of life in which individuals dedicate themselves to spiritual work, typically in a community setting, and often take vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. This practice emerged prominently in the early Christian era and became a significant aspect of the religious landscape, influencing various facets of society including education, agriculture, and art.
Montesquieu: Montesquieu was an influential French philosopher and political theorist of the Enlightenment, best known for his works advocating the separation of powers in government. His ideas greatly influenced modern political thought and were fundamental in shaping democratic governance, particularly in relation to the concepts of liberty and justice.
Natural law: Natural law refers to a system of moral principles and values that are believed to be inherent in human nature and universally recognizable through human reason. This concept asserts that certain rights and ethical standards are not dictated by society but are instead derived from nature itself, connecting deeply with ideas of justice, morality, and human rights that have shaped legal and philosophical thought throughout history.
Natural rights: Natural rights are fundamental human rights that are considered inherent and inalienable, existing independently of government or laws. These rights typically include the right to life, liberty, and property, and they suggest that individuals possess certain freedoms simply by being human, regardless of societal or governmental recognition.
Neoclassical Art: Neoclassical art is an artistic movement that emerged in the late 18th century, characterized by a return to the classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing clarity, simplicity, and symmetry. This style sought to revive the themes and styles of classical antiquity, reflecting Enlightenment values such as reason and civic virtue. Neoclassical art is significant for its role in shaping Western art and culture and its connections to the philosophical and political changes of the time.
Pantheon: A pantheon refers to the complete set of gods and goddesses in a particular religion or mythology, representing the collective deities worshiped by a culture. In ancient societies, these deities often symbolized various aspects of life, nature, and human experience, reflecting the beliefs, values, and identity of the people. The pantheon serves as a crucial framework for understanding the cultural and spiritual life of civilizations, shaping artistic expressions, architectural styles, and literary works.
Parthenon: The Parthenon is a monumental temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, located on the Acropolis of Athens. It symbolizes the height of ancient Greek architectural achievement and represents the cultural and political power of Athens during its golden age, particularly under the leadership of Pericles. The Parthenon not only served religious purposes but also stood as a testament to the values and ideals of Athenian democracy and civilization.
Polybius: Polybius was a Greek historian who lived from approximately 200 to 118 BCE, best known for his work 'The Histories,' which covers the rise of the Roman Republic and its expansion into the Mediterranean world. His analysis of political systems and events provided insights that shaped historical understanding and influenced later historians.
Postmodernism: Postmodernism is a complex philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, characterized by a skeptical, critical approach to concepts of truth, authority, and narrative. It challenges the grand narratives and ideologies of modernism, embracing a fragmented perspective that values diversity, pluralism, and subjectivity. This movement has significant connections to art, literature, architecture, and critical theory, reshaping how societies interpret their histories and cultural legacies.
Ptolemy's Geocentric Model: Ptolemy's Geocentric Model is an ancient astronomical theory that places the Earth at the center of the universe, with all celestial bodies, including the sun and stars, revolving around it. This model, articulated by the Greek-Egyptian astronomer Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE, dominated astronomical thought for over a millennium and influenced various aspects of science and philosophy.
Raphael: Raphael was an influential Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance, known for his harmonious compositions and mastery of perspective. His work combines classical themes with a humanistic approach, exemplifying the legacy of the Ancient Mediterranean world in art and architecture.
Renaissance art: Renaissance art refers to the artistic style that emerged in Europe during the 14th to 17th centuries, characterized by a renewed interest in classical antiquity, naturalism, and humanism. This period marked a shift away from the religious focus of medieval art towards more secular themes, emphasizing individual expression and the beauty of the human form.
Republic: A republic is a form of government in which power resides with the people, who elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. This system promotes a separation of powers and emphasizes the rule of law, providing a framework for citizens to participate in governance through elected officials.
Roman Empire: The Roman Empire was a powerful ancient civilization that existed from 27 BC to AD 476 in the West and lasted until 1453 in the East, known for its vast territorial holdings, complex governance, and significant cultural influence. Its expansion across Europe, North Africa, and parts of the Middle East shaped the political, social, and religious landscape of the Mediterranean world.
Roman Engineering: Roman engineering refers to the innovative construction techniques and architectural designs developed by the Romans, which allowed them to build impressive structures and infrastructure throughout their empire. This engineering prowess not only facilitated the expansion and administration of the empire but also left a lasting legacy on future generations in terms of architecture, civil engineering, and urban planning.
Roman Republic: The Roman Republic was a period of ancient Roman civilization that lasted from 509 BC to 27 BC, characterized by a system of government in which power resided with elected officials and a complex mix of social classes. It was marked by the establishment of key political institutions like the Senate and popular assemblies, setting the stage for Rome's expansion and eventual transition into the Roman Empire. The Republic's structure and political developments significantly influenced later governance in the Western world.
Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was an influential 18th-century philosopher whose ideas on social contract theory and human nature had a profound impact on political thought and modern philosophy. He challenged the notions of inequality and advocated for the principles of democracy and individual freedom, reflecting the legacy of Enlightenment ideals stemming from ancient Mediterranean thought.
Sophocles: Sophocles was a prominent ancient Greek playwright, known for his contributions to the genre of tragedy during the Classical period. He is famous for works like 'Oedipus Rex' and 'Antigone,' which explore complex themes such as fate, morality, and human suffering, reflecting the values and concerns of his time.
Stoicism: Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium, which teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions. The philosophy emphasizes rationality, virtue, and living in accordance with nature, influencing various aspects of culture, ethics, and politics in the ancient world.
Theodosius I: Theodosius I, also known as Theodosius the Great, was a Roman emperor who ruled from 379 to 395 AD and is notable for being the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and western halves of the Roman Empire. His reign marked a significant turning point as he made Christianity the official state religion of the empire, impacting the religious landscape and political structure of the ancient Mediterranean world.
Twelve Tables: The Twelve Tables were the first set of written laws in ancient Rome, created around 450 BCE. They established fundamental legal principles that aimed to provide transparency and equality before the law for Roman citizens. These tables were a key development in the Roman republican government, reflecting societal values and influencing later legal systems across the Ancient Mediterranean world.