12.1 Early Rome: myths, monarchy, and the early republic

The Mythical Founding and Early History of Rome

Rome's origin story blended myth with cultural identity. The tale of Romulus and Remus gave Romans a divine ancestry, reinforced values like martial strength, and provided a narrative that justified the city's growing power. Understanding these myths matters because Romans themselves treated them as foundational truths that shaped real political decisions for centuries.

Mythical founding of Rome

Twin brothers Romulus and Remus are the traditional founders of Rome. According to the myth, they were sons of the god Mars and the Vestal Virgin Rhea Silvia. Abandoned as infants in a basket on the Tiber River, they were rescued and nursed by a she-wolf, then raised by a shepherd named Faustulus.

When the brothers grew up, they quarreled over where to build their new city. Romulus killed Remus and became the sole founder and first king, naming the city after himself. (The word "Rome" from "Romulus" is an eponym, a place or thing named after a person.)

The traditional founding date is 753 BCE. Whether or not any of this actually happened, the myth served real purposes in Roman culture:

• It gave Rome a divine and heroic origin, linking the city directly to Mars, the god of war.
• It legitimized the authority of early kings and, later, the Roman state itself.
• It embedded cultural values like military prowess and a belief in Rome's destined greatness into the city's identity from the very start.

Key events of Roman monarchy

According to tradition, Rome was ruled by seven kings before the Republic. Each king contributed something to the city's development:

• Romulus (753–716 BCE) founded Rome and organized its first political and military institutions.
• Numa Pompilius (715–673 BCE) established religious rites and priesthoods, giving Rome its early sacred calendar and rituals.
• Tullus Hostilius (673–642 BCE) was a warlike king who destroyed Alba Longa, Rome's parent city in Latin tradition.
• Ancus Marcius (642–617 BCE) expanded Roman territory and built the port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, connecting Rome to maritime trade.
• Tarquinius Priscus (616–579 BCE) was the first Etruscan-born king. He began major public works, including the Cloaca Maxima, Rome's great sewer system.
• Servius Tullius (578–535 BCE) reformed the Roman constitution, established a census to organize citizens by wealth, and created the Comitia Centuriata (the centuriate assembly).
• Tarquinius Superbus (534–510 BCE) ruled as a tyrant. His overthrow led directly to the founding of the Republic.

The last three kings were Etruscan or Etruscan-influenced, reflecting the significant cultural impact the Etruscans had on early Rome. During this monarchical period, Rome grew from a small settlement on the Palatine Hill to a city controlling the surrounding hills and much of the region of Latium.

The Transition to Republic and the Early Republican Period

Transition to the Roman republic

The overthrow of the last king was triggered by a specific act of violence. Sextus Tarquinius, son of king Tarquinius Superbus, raped Lucretia, the wife of a prominent nobleman. Lucretia's subsequent suicide sparked outrage among the aristocracy. Lucius Junius Brutus led a rebellion that expelled the Tarquin family in 510 BCE.

After the expulsion, Rome replaced the monarchy with a republic. The key changes:

1. Executive power went to two consuls, elected annually. They shared authority and commanded the army, and each could veto the other. This dual structure was designed to prevent any one person from gaining king-like power.
2. The consuls were advised by the Senate, a council of wealthy and influential aristocrats.
3. Political power was concentrated in the hands of a small group of aristocratic families, making the early Republic more of an oligarchy than a democracy. Common people, the plebeians, had limited political rights and representation.

Institutions of the early republic

The Senate was the most powerful institution of the early Republic. It had around 300 members drawn from the patrician (aristocratic) class. While technically an advisory body, the Senate controlled public finances, directed foreign policy, and shaped legislation. In practice, its recommendations carried enormous weight.

Two main legislative assemblies handled voting and lawmaking:

• The Comitia Centuriata was the primary assembly. All male citizens were divided into 193 centuries based on wealth and age. This assembly elected consuls and other senior magistrates, declared war, and passed laws. Because wealthier citizens had more centuries, they held disproportionate voting power.
• The Comitia Tributa organized all male citizens into 35 tribes based on geography. It elected lower magistrates and passed laws. Its structure gave somewhat broader representation than the centuriate assembly.

Roman society was sharply divided between two classes:

• Patricians were wealthy aristocrats who dominated political office and religious authority.
• Plebeians were everyone else: farmers, artisans, merchants. They made up the majority of the population but had limited access to political power.

This divide produced ongoing tension. Over time, plebeians pushed for greater representation, leading to the creation of the Tribune of the Plebs. Tribunes held a remarkable power: they could veto the actions of any magistrate or even the Senate. They also convened the Concilium Plebis (assembly of the plebeians), which passed resolutions called plebiscita that eventually became binding on the entire population. The tribunate was a critical check on patrician dominance and would remain a flashpoint in Roman politics for centuries.