4.2 The development of urban African American communities

The Great Migration refers to the mass movement of over six million African Americans from the rural Southern United States to urban areas in the North and West from around 1916 to 1970. This migration was driven by a search for better economic opportunities and escape from the oppressive conditions of the South, which included systemic racism, disenfranchisement, and violent reprisals.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local laws enacted in the Southern United States that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised African Americans after the Reconstruction era.

Urbanization: The process by which an increasing percentage of a population comes to live in urban areas, often associated with migration from rural settings.

Harlem Renaissance: A cultural movement in the 1920s that celebrated African American cultural expressions through literature, art, and music, largely fueled by the influx of Black migrants to cities like New York.

Housing discrimination refers to the unfair treatment of individuals or groups in housing-related activities, such as renting, buying, or financing a home, based on characteristics like race, color, religion, sex, national origin, familial status, or disability. This practice has significantly influenced the development and dynamics of urban African American communities, often leading to segregation and inequality in access to housing and resources.

Redlining: A discriminatory practice by banks and insurers where they refuse or limit loans, mortgages, or insurance based on the racial or ethnic composition of a neighborhood.

Segregation: The enforced separation of different racial groups in various aspects of life, including housing, schools, and public facilities.

Fair Housing Act: A U.S. law enacted in 1968 that prohibits discrimination in housing based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, familial status, or disability.

Segregation is the enforced separation of different racial groups in a society, particularly in public spaces, education, and housing. This practice was rooted in systemic racism and laws that aimed to maintain white supremacy by limiting African Americans' access to resources, opportunities, and rights. Segregation created significant barriers to social and economic progress for Black communities, leading to the establishment of distinct urban neighborhoods, organized resistance against discriminatory practices, and the rise of activist movements seeking equality.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until the civil rights movement.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement in the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans.

Discrimination: Unjust treatment of different categories of people, particularly based on race, gender, or age, resulting in unequal access to opportunities and resources.

The cultural scene refers to the vibrant, dynamic expression of arts, music, literature, and social practices within a community. It often reflects the unique identity of a group and plays a critical role in fostering connections among individuals through shared experiences and cultural outputs. In urban African American communities, this scene is shaped by historical experiences, socio-economic factors, and the collective creativity of its members.

Harlem Renaissance: A cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s, which celebrated African American cultural expressions and produced influential works in literature, music, and art.

Gospel Music: A genre of Christian music that originated in African American churches, characterized by its expressive and soulful style, which played a significant role in shaping the cultural scene in urban communities.

Community Art Projects: Collaborative initiatives that engage local artists and residents to create public art, fostering a sense of community identity and pride while addressing social issues.

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s, characterized by a flourishing of African American art, literature, music, and intellectual thought. It served as a powerful response to the systemic racism and disenfranchisement faced by African Americans, fostering a sense of racial pride and identity while significantly influencing American culture.

New Negro Movement: A cultural movement emphasizing racial pride and the rejection of stereotypes, closely associated with the Harlem Renaissance and promoting African American art and literature.

Jazz Age: A term used to describe the cultural era in the 1920s marked by the popularity of jazz music and dance, which was heavily influenced by the contributions of African American musicians during the Harlem Renaissance.

Langston Hughes: An influential poet, social activist, and playwright who was a leading figure of the Harlem Renaissance, known for his insightful and powerful exploration of African American life.

Civil rights advocacy refers to the organized efforts aimed at promoting and protecting the rights of individuals, particularly marginalized groups, ensuring equality and justice in society. This term is crucial in understanding the historical and ongoing struggle against discrimination and inequality, especially within urban African American communities, where activism has often focused on addressing systemic racism, economic disparities, and social injustices that have plagued these areas.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, a civil rights organization founded in 1909 that works to eliminate racial discrimination and promote civil rights through advocacy, litigation, and public education.

Grassroots Movement: A type of social movement driven by the community's involvement at the local level, emphasizing collective action and direct participation to create change from the ground up.

Voting Rights Act: A landmark piece of federal legislation passed in 1965 aimed at eliminating various forms of voting discrimination that disenfranchised African Americans, particularly in Southern states.

The Abyssinian Baptist Church is a historic African American church located in Harlem, New York City, founded in 1808. It has played a vital role in the development of urban African American communities, serving as a spiritual and cultural hub while also advocating for social justice and civil rights throughout its history. This church has been a center for community organizing and activism, fostering a sense of belonging and resilience among its congregation during times of racial oppression.

Harlem Renaissance: A cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem during the 1920s, highlighting African American cultural identity and creativity.

Civil Rights Movement: A struggle for social justice and equality for African Americans in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s, addressing issues like segregation and voting rights.

Reverend Adam Clayton Powell Jr.: A prominent African American pastor and politician who served as the leader of Abyssinian Baptist Church from 1937 to 1972, advocating for civil rights and social justice.

Black-owned businesses are enterprises that are owned and operated by individuals of African descent. These businesses have historically played a crucial role in the economic development and empowerment of African American communities, particularly in urban areas, where they have provided essential goods, services, and employment opportunities. The growth and success of these businesses reflect resilience and creativity in the face of systemic racism and economic barriers.

Economic Empowerment: The process by which individuals or communities gain control over their economic resources and decisions, enabling them to improve their financial well-being and independence.

Entrepreneurship: The act of starting and running one's own business, which can provide opportunities for financial growth, innovation, and job creation within a community.

Community Development: A process aimed at improving the social, economic, and environmental well-being of a community through various initiatives, including supporting local businesses.

Community uplift refers to collective efforts within a community aimed at improving social, economic, and political conditions to foster a better quality of life for its members. This concept emphasizes self-help, empowerment, and the importance of solidarity among individuals to achieve shared goals, particularly within urban African American communities facing systemic challenges.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing legal rights for African Americans, which significantly contributed to community uplift efforts.

Social Capital: The networks, relationships, and trust that exist within a community, which can facilitate cooperation for mutual benefit and contribute to community uplift initiatives.

Grassroots Organizing: A form of activism that focuses on community involvement and local leadership to drive change from the ground up, often playing a key role in community uplift efforts.

The National Association of Colored Women's Clubs (NACWC) is an organization founded in 1896 to advocate for the rights and welfare of African American women. It emerged as a response to the racial injustices faced by Black women and aimed to address social issues, promote education, and empower women within urban African American communities.

Women’s Suffrage Movement: A social movement advocating for women's right to vote, which intersected with the fight for civil rights among African American women.

Black Women's Club Movement: A broader movement that encompassed various local clubs and organizations formed by Black women to address issues such as education, healthcare, and civil rights.

Ida B. Wells: A prominent African American journalist and activist who played a significant role in the NACWC and fought against lynching and racial injustice.

The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) was an organization founded by Marcus Garvey in 1914 that aimed to promote unity and self-reliance among people of African descent worldwide. UNIA sought to address the challenges of disenfranchisement and discrimination faced by African Americans and advocated for social, political, and economic empowerment. Through its various programs, it played a crucial role in shaping urban African American communities and fostering a sense of pride and identity during the early 20th century.

Marcus Garvey: A Jamaican political leader and activist who founded the UNIA and is known for his efforts to promote Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism.

Pan-Africanism: A movement that seeks to unify African people worldwide and emphasizes solidarity among people of African descent in their fight against oppression.

Black Nationalism: A political and social movement that advocates for the self-determination of Black people and promotes the idea of a separate Black identity and culture.

Redlining is a discriminatory practice that involves denying services, typically housing loans, to residents of certain areas based on their racial or ethnic composition. This practice created and reinforced residential segregation and systemic inequalities, impacting various aspects of life for marginalized communities.

Urban Renewal: A program aimed at revitalizing urban areas, often resulting in the displacement of low-income and minority residents in favor of more affluent developments.

Suburbanization: The process of population movement from urban areas to suburbs, which was often facilitated by discriminatory practices like redlining that pushed minorities into less desirable neighborhoods.

Discrimination in Housing: The unequal treatment of individuals or groups in the housing market based on race, ethnicity, or other factors, contributing to systemic inequalities.

Employment discrimination refers to unfair treatment of individuals in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and other aspects of employment based on characteristics such as race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability, or genetic information. This discriminatory practice has played a significant role in shaping urban African American communities, as barriers to employment have often resulted in economic instability and social inequality.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC): A federal agency that enforces laws against workplace discrimination and ensures that individuals have equal access to employment opportunities.

Affirmative Action: Policies and practices aimed at increasing the representation of historically marginalized groups in areas such as employment and education.

Redlining: A discriminatory practice where services such as banking, insurance, and access to jobs are denied to residents of certain areas based on racial or ethnic composition.

The Chicago Race Riot of 1919 was a violent confrontation that erupted in Chicago from July 27 to August 3, driven by racial tensions stemming from the Great Migration and competition for jobs and housing. This riot marked a significant moment in the development of urban African American communities, highlighting the struggles they faced in an increasingly segregated city amidst the backdrop of World War I and the post-war social changes.

Great Migration: A mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban areas in the North, seeking better economic opportunities and escaping Jim Crow laws.

Red Summer: Refers to the summer of 1919 when numerous race riots erupted across the United States, fueled by racial tension and competition for resources following World War I.

Harlem Renaissance: A cultural movement in the 1920s that celebrated African American cultural expression through art, literature, and music, emerging partly as a response to the racial inequalities highlighted during events like the Chicago Race Riot.

Grassroots activism refers to the efforts of ordinary people at the community level to advocate for social or political change. This type of activism often arises from local concerns and is characterized by collective action, mobilization, and the engagement of individuals who seek to influence decision-makers and raise awareness about specific issues impacting their communities. It plays a crucial role in building awareness, solidarity, and direct action among marginalized groups, particularly in urban African American communities.

Community Organizing: The process of bringing people together to work toward a common goal, often focusing on social justice issues and empowering local residents.

Civic Engagement: Participation in activities that promote the public good, including voting, volunteering, and advocacy, often aimed at influencing public policy.

Social Movements: Collective efforts by groups of people to bring about social or political change, often focusing on specific issues such as civil rights, economic equality, or environmental justice.

The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom was a pivotal civil rights demonstration that took place on August 28, 1963, in Washington, D.C., where over 250,000 people gathered to advocate for economic and racial justice. This event became a symbol of the civil rights movement and was significant in showcasing the demands for fair employment, decent housing, integrated education, and the right to vote for African Americans. The march is most famously known for Martin Luther King Jr.'s 'I Have a Dream' speech, which emphasized the need for equality and justice in America.

Civil Rights Movement: A decades-long struggle to end racial discrimination and ensure equal rights under the law for African Americans.

Economic Justice: The pursuit of fair economic opportunities and treatment for all individuals, particularly marginalized communities.

I Have a Dream Speech: A historic speech delivered by Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington, calling for an end to racism and for civil and economic rights.

Political empowerment refers to the process of increasing the political strength and influence of marginalized groups, allowing them to participate fully in political decision-making and governance. It is crucial for achieving social justice and equality, enabling communities to voice their concerns and advocate for their rights. The significance of political empowerment is particularly evident in how it has shaped urban African American communities and influenced significant political milestones, like the election of Barack Obama.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement in the United States aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans, advocating for equal rights and suffrage.

Voter Suppression: Efforts to restrict or limit voting access for specific populations, often targeting minority groups, which undermines political empowerment.

Community Organizing: The process by which community members come together to identify common issues, build leadership skills, and advocate for change within their political system.