2.3 African American responses to disenfranchisement and discrimination
4 min read•july 22, 2024
African Americans resisted Jim Crow through legal challenges, boycotts, and migration. Key cases like and shaped the legal landscape. The and were powerful forms of collective action.
Leaders like and offered different strategies for advancement. Cultural movements like the celebrated Black identity. Churches, schools, and organizations provided crucial support and spaces for organizing against oppression.
African American Resistance to Jim Crow
Strategies for resisting Jim Crow
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- Legal challenges
- Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
- Challenged the constitutionality of racial segregation in public facilities
- Supreme Court ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were constitutional, upholding the legality of Jim Crow laws
- Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
- Challenged the constitutionality of racial segregation in public schools arguing that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal
- Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson
- Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
- Boycotts
- Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)
- Protested segregated seating on public buses in Montgomery, Alabama following the arrest of Rosa Parks for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger
- Led by and the Montgomery Improvement Association, the boycott lasted 381 days and involved the majority of the city's African American community
- Resulted in the desegregation of Montgomery's public transit system and served as a model for future nonviolent civil rights protests
- Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)
- Migration
- Great Migration (1916-1970)
- Mass movement of over 6 million African Americans from the rural South to urban areas in the North (Chicago, Detroit) and West (Los Angeles, Oakland) between 1916 and 1970
- Sought better economic opportunities in industrial jobs and escape from racial violence, oppression, and the limited opportunities of the sharecropping system
- (1940-1970)
- Continued movement of African Americans to urban centers, particularly during and after World War II
- Driven by job opportunities in wartime industries (defense manufacturing) and postwar economic growth, as well as ongoing racial discrimination in the South
- Great Migration (1916-1970)
Role of African American leaders
- Booker T. Washington (1856-1915)
- Founder of Tuskegee Institute, a historically black vocational school in Alabama
- Advocated for vocational education and economic self-sufficiency as a means of improving African American lives and gaining acceptance from white society
- Believed in accommodating white society to achieve gradual progress, emphasizing self-help and individual responsibility over political activism
- Delivered the speech (1895) which called for African Americans to focus on economic advancement rather than challenging segregation and discrimination
- W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)
- Co-founder of the (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909
- Advocated for civil rights, political action, and higher education as essential for achieving racial equality
- Believed in challenging racial discrimination directly through legal action, political pressure, and public education
- Wrote "" (1903), a influential collection of essays on African American life and race relations, and edited "", the official magazine of the NAACP
African American Cultural and Institutional Resistance
Impact of cultural movements
- Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s)
- Cultural and intellectual movement centered in Harlem, New York that celebrated African American art, literature, music, and politics
- Challenged racial stereotypes and promoted racial pride by showcasing the talents and achievements of African American writers (Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston), musicians (Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong), and artists (Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage)
- Encouraged a new sense of African American identity and cultural expression rooted in the experiences of urban life and the African diaspora
- Notable works include Hughes' poetry collection "The Weary Blues" (1926), Hurston's novel "Their Eyes Were Watching God" (1937), and the art of the "New Negro Movement"
- (1930s-1940s)
- Francophone African and Caribbean literary movement that celebrated black culture, identity, and anti-colonial resistance
- Influenced by the Harlem Renaissance and African American intellectuals like Du Bois and Hughes
- Key figures included Aimé Césaire (Martinique), Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegal), and Léon Damas (French Guiana) who used poetry and prose to affirm the value of African culture and critique European colonialism
Effectiveness of African American institutions
- Churches
- Served as community centers and sites of political organizing, providing spaces for meetings, rallies, and voter registration drives
- Provided spiritual support and leadership during times of oppression, offering messages of hope, resilience, and social justice
- Examples: (AME) which played a key role in the abolitionist movement and civil rights activism, and Baptist churches which were central to the Montgomery Bus Boycott and other protests
- Schools
- Provided education and skills training for African American students in a time of segregated and underfunded public schools
- Served as centers of community pride and cultural preservation, educating students about African American history and culture
- Examples: (HBCUs) like Howard University in Washington D.C. and Fisk University in Nashville which trained generations of African American leaders and professionals
- Mutual aid societies and fraternal organizations
- Provided financial support, social networks, and community services to African Americans facing economic hardship and discrimination
- Offered opportunities for leadership, skill-building, and collective action outside of white-controlled institutions
- Examples: (UNIA) founded by Marcus Garvey which promoted black economic independence and pride, and Prince Hall Freemasonry which provided social and philanthropic support to African American communities
Key Terms to Review (17)
African Methodist Episcopal Church: The African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME Church) is a historically African American Christian denomination founded in the early 19th century. It was established to provide a religious community for free and enslaved African Americans who faced discrimination and exclusion in predominantly white churches, serving as both a spiritual haven and a platform for social justice and civil rights activism.
Atlanta Compromise: The Atlanta Compromise was an agreement articulated by Booker T. Washington in 1895, which suggested that African Americans should accept disenfranchisement and social segregation for the time being in exchange for economic opportunities and vocational training. This concept emphasized a focus on self-help, education, and economic advancement as a means for African Americans to gradually earn respect and rights in American society, rather than directly challenging the prevailing racial discrimination.
Booker T. Washington: Booker T. Washington was a prominent African American educator, author, and speaker who emerged as a leading figure in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He advocated for vocational education and economic self-reliance as a means for African Americans to improve their social status and gain acceptance in a racially divided society. His approach emphasized gradual progress through hard work and education rather than immediate demands for civil rights, which created a significant dialogue around African American responses to disenfranchisement and discrimination.
Brown v. Board of Education: Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, effectively overturning the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson. This ruling was a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement, as it challenged the legality of segregation and laid the groundwork for future civil rights legislation and court cases.
Great Migration: The Great Migration refers to the mass movement of over six million African Americans from the rural Southern United States to urban areas in the North and West from around 1916 to 1970. This migration was driven by a search for better economic opportunities and escape from the oppressive conditions of the South, which included systemic racism, disenfranchisement, and violent reprisals.
Harlem Renaissance: The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s, characterized by a flourishing of African American art, literature, music, and intellectual thought. It served as a powerful response to the systemic racism and disenfranchisement faced by African Americans, fostering a sense of racial pride and identity while significantly influencing American culture.
Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) are institutions of higher education established before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 with the primary mission of educating Black Americans. These schools were created in response to the systemic disenfranchisement and discrimination faced by African Americans, providing them with access to quality education during a time when mainstream institutions often denied them entry based on race. HBCUs have played a crucial role in promoting social mobility, cultural identity, and community empowerment among African Americans.
Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent civil rights leader who advocated for nonviolent resistance to combat racial injustice and segregation in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. His leadership and oratory skills galvanized millions in the struggle for civil rights, making significant strides towards equality through pivotal events such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington.
Montgomery Bus Boycott: The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a pivotal civil rights protest that began on December 5, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, when African Americans refused to ride city buses to challenge racial segregation. This boycott was a response to systemic racism and aimed at ending discriminatory practices on public transportation, highlighting the broader struggle against Jim Crow laws and segregation.
NAACP: The NAACP, or the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, is a civil rights organization founded in 1909 to fight for racial equality and eliminate discrimination against African Americans. The organization played a crucial role in challenging Jim Crow laws, advocating for civil rights legislation, and addressing issues such as lynching, disenfranchisement, and segregation.
Négritude movement: The négritude movement was a cultural and literary movement that emerged in the 1930s among French-speaking African and Caribbean intellectuals, celebrating Black identity, culture, and heritage. This movement sought to counteract colonial attitudes of racial superiority and foster a sense of pride among people of African descent, linking the experiences of disenfranchisement and discrimination faced by Black individuals in the Americas and abroad.
Plessy v. Ferguson: Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of 'separate but equal.' This ruling legitimized Jim Crow laws and reinforced systemic discrimination against African Americans, impacting various aspects of civil rights and social justice in America.
Second Great Migration: The Second Great Migration refers to the mass movement of over five million African Americans from the rural South to urban areas in the North and West between 1941 and 1970. This migration was a response to systemic racism, economic opportunities, and the search for a better quality of life, leading to significant demographic changes in the U.S. and influencing social, political, and cultural dynamics.
The Crisis: The Crisis was a significant African American publication that served as the official magazine of the NAACP, founded in 1910. It aimed to address and articulate the struggles, hopes, and aspirations of African Americans during a time of severe racial discrimination and violence, making it a crucial platform for promoting civil rights and cultural expression.
The Souls of Black Folk: The Souls of Black Folk is a seminal work published in 1903 by W.E.B. Du Bois that explores the complex experiences and struggles of African Americans in the post-Civil War era. This influential book combines essays, social commentary, and personal reflections to highlight issues such as disenfranchisement, racial discrimination, and the need for higher education and civil rights, while also presenting a critique of the prevailing ideologies of the time.
Universal Negro Improvement Association: The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) was an organization founded by Marcus Garvey in 1914 that aimed to promote unity and self-reliance among people of African descent worldwide. UNIA sought to address the challenges of disenfranchisement and discrimination faced by African Americans and advocated for social, political, and economic empowerment. Through its various programs, it played a crucial role in shaping urban African American communities and fostering a sense of pride and identity during the early 20th century.
W.E.B. Du Bois: W.E.B. Du Bois was a prominent African American scholar, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, known for his advocacy for political and social equality for African Americans. His work challenged the prevailing racial attitudes of his time and addressed issues like segregation, disenfranchisement, and economic disparities.