2.3 African American responses to disenfranchisement and discrimination

Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of 'separate but equal.' This ruling legitimized Jim Crow laws and reinforced systemic discrimination against African Americans, impacting various aspects of civil rights and social justice in America.

Separate but Equal: A legal doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson that permitted racial segregation as long as the separate facilities were considered equal in quality.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local statutes enacted in the Southern United States that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised African Americans from the post-Reconstruction era until the Civil Rights Movement.

Civil Rights Movement: A social and political movement during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans, eventually leading to significant legal and legislative changes.

Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, effectively overturning the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson. This ruling was a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement, as it challenged the legality of segregation and laid the groundwork for future civil rights legislation and court cases.

Plessy v. Ferguson: An 1896 Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine, which was later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: A comprehensive civil rights law that prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, building upon the foundation laid by Brown v. Board of Education.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, an organization that played a crucial role in advocating for civil rights and challenging segregation in court, including in Brown v. Board of Education.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a pivotal civil rights protest that began on December 5, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, when African Americans refused to ride city buses to challenge racial segregation. This boycott was a response to systemic racism and aimed at ending discriminatory practices on public transportation, highlighting the broader struggle against Jim Crow laws and segregation.

Rosa Parks: An African American civil rights activist whose refusal to give up her bus seat to a white man sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Martin Luther King Jr.: A key leader of the civil rights movement who emerged during the boycott and advocated for nonviolent resistance and social change.

Civil Rights Movement: A mass protest movement against racial segregation and discrimination in the United States that gained momentum during the 1950s and 1960s.

The Great Migration refers to the mass movement of over six million African Americans from the rural Southern United States to urban areas in the North and West from around 1916 to 1970. This migration was driven by a search for better economic opportunities and escape from the oppressive conditions of the South, which included systemic racism, disenfranchisement, and violent reprisals.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local laws enacted in the Southern United States that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised African Americans after the Reconstruction era.

Urbanization: The process by which an increasing percentage of a population comes to live in urban areas, often associated with migration from rural settings.

Harlem Renaissance: A cultural movement in the 1920s that celebrated African American cultural expressions through literature, art, and music, largely fueled by the influx of Black migrants to cities like New York.

Booker T. Washington was a prominent African American educator, author, and speaker who emerged as a leading figure in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He advocated for vocational education and economic self-reliance as a means for African Americans to improve their social status and gain acceptance in a racially divided society. His approach emphasized gradual progress through hard work and education rather than immediate demands for civil rights, which created a significant dialogue around African American responses to disenfranchisement and discrimination.

Tuskegee Institute: An educational institution founded by Booker T. Washington in Alabama that focused on vocational training for African Americans, promoting practical skills for self-sufficiency.

Atlanta Compromise: A speech delivered by Washington in 1895 that outlined his philosophy of racial uplift through education and economic progress, arguing that African Americans should accept segregation temporarily in exchange for economic opportunities.

W.E.B. Du Bois: An influential African American intellectual and co-founder of the NAACP who opposed Washington's gradualist approach, advocating instead for immediate civil rights and higher education for the 'Talented Tenth' of the Black population.

W.E.B. Du Bois was a prominent African American scholar, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, known for his advocacy for political and social equality for African Americans. His work challenged the prevailing racial attitudes of his time and addressed issues like segregation, disenfranchisement, and economic disparities.

Talented Tenth: A concept introduced by Du Bois that emphasized the leadership role of the top ten percent of educated African Americans in uplifting the entire race.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, co-founded by Du Bois in 1909 to fight for civil rights and eliminate racial discrimination.

Double Consciousness: A term coined by Du Bois to describe the internal conflict experienced by marginalized groups, particularly African Americans, in a society that devalues their identity.

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s, characterized by a flourishing of African American art, literature, music, and intellectual thought. It served as a powerful response to the systemic racism and disenfranchisement faced by African Americans, fostering a sense of racial pride and identity while significantly influencing American culture.

New Negro Movement: A cultural movement emphasizing racial pride and the rejection of stereotypes, closely associated with the Harlem Renaissance and promoting African American art and literature.

Jazz Age: A term used to describe the cultural era in the 1920s marked by the popularity of jazz music and dance, which was heavily influenced by the contributions of African American musicians during the Harlem Renaissance.

Langston Hughes: An influential poet, social activist, and playwright who was a leading figure of the Harlem Renaissance, known for his insightful and powerful exploration of African American life.

Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent civil rights leader who advocated for nonviolent resistance to combat racial injustice and segregation in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. His leadership and oratory skills galvanized millions in the struggle for civil rights, making significant strides towards equality through pivotal events such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: A landmark piece of legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, significantly advancing civil rights for African Americans.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC): An organization founded by King and other civil rights leaders to coordinate nonviolent protests and civil rights activism across the southern United States.

I Have a Dream Speech: A famous speech delivered by Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963, which articulated his vision for a racially integrated and harmonious America.

The Second Great Migration refers to the mass movement of over five million African Americans from the rural South to urban areas in the North and West between 1941 and 1970. This migration was a response to systemic racism, economic opportunities, and the search for a better quality of life, leading to significant demographic changes in the U.S. and influencing social, political, and cultural dynamics.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States, creating an oppressive environment for African Americans.

Urbanization: The process by which cities grow as people move from rural areas to urban centers, often leading to significant social and economic changes.

Civil Rights Movement: A social and political movement aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing legal recognition and federal protection of the citizenship rights of African Americans.

The Atlanta Compromise was an agreement articulated by Booker T. Washington in 1895, which suggested that African Americans should accept disenfranchisement and social segregation for the time being in exchange for economic opportunities and vocational training. This concept emphasized a focus on self-help, education, and economic advancement as a means for African Americans to gradually earn respect and rights in American society, rather than directly challenging the prevailing racial discrimination.

Booker T. Washington: An influential African American educator and leader who advocated for vocational education and economic self-sufficiency for Black people as a strategy for gaining social equality.

W.E.B. Du Bois: A prominent African American intellectual and civil rights activist who criticized the Atlanta Compromise, advocating instead for immediate political rights and higher education for African Americans.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until the civil rights movement in the 1960s.

The NAACP, or the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, is a civil rights organization founded in 1909 to fight for racial equality and eliminate discrimination against African Americans. The organization played a crucial role in challenging Jim Crow laws, advocating for civil rights legislation, and addressing issues such as lynching, disenfranchisement, and segregation.

Civil Rights Act: A landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, which was essential in advancing the goals of the NAACP.

Lynchings: The illegal execution of individuals by a mob, often racially motivated, that was a significant issue the NAACP sought to combat through advocacy and public awareness campaigns.

Thurgood Marshall: A prominent civil rights lawyer who served as the chief counsel for the NAACP and played a key role in landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education, which ended racial segregation in public schools.

The Souls of Black Folk is a seminal work published in 1903 by W.E.B. Du Bois that explores the complex experiences and struggles of African Americans in the post-Civil War era. This influential book combines essays, social commentary, and personal reflections to highlight issues such as disenfranchisement, racial discrimination, and the need for higher education and civil rights, while also presenting a critique of the prevailing ideologies of the time.

Double Consciousness: A concept introduced by Du Bois that describes the internal conflict experienced by marginalized groups in an oppressive society, where they see themselves through their own perspective and through the lens of a dominant culture that devalues them.

Niagara Movement: A civil rights organization founded in 1905 by Du Bois and others, advocating for full civil rights, suffrage, and higher education for African Americans as a response to systemic discrimination.

Talented Tenth: Du Bois's idea that the top ten percent of educated and skilled African Americans should lead the way in uplifting their community and advocating for civil rights.

The Crisis was a significant African American publication that served as the official magazine of the NAACP, founded in 1910. It aimed to address and articulate the struggles, hopes, and aspirations of African Americans during a time of severe racial discrimination and violence, making it a crucial platform for promoting civil rights and cultural expression.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, established in 1909, is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States, focusing on fighting for social justice and equality for African Americans.

Lynching: An act of violence in which a mob takes the law into its own hands to execute someone without a legal trial, commonly targeting African Americans during the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a method of racial terror.

Harlem Renaissance: A cultural, social, and artistic explosion centered in Harlem during the 1920s, where African American artists, writers, and musicians celebrated their heritage and sought to redefine their identity in a racially oppressive society.

The négritude movement was a cultural and literary movement that emerged in the 1930s among French-speaking African and Caribbean intellectuals, celebrating Black identity, culture, and heritage. This movement sought to counteract colonial attitudes of racial superiority and foster a sense of pride among people of African descent, linking the experiences of disenfranchisement and discrimination faced by Black individuals in the Americas and abroad.

Pan-Africanism: A political and cultural movement that seeks to unify African people globally, promoting solidarity among all people of African descent.

Colonialism: The practice of acquiring control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.

Black Consciousness Movement: A South African movement that emerged in the 1960s focusing on psychological liberation and asserting pride in Black identity as a response to apartheid.

The African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME Church) is a historically African American Christian denomination founded in the early 19th century. It was established to provide a religious community for free and enslaved African Americans who faced discrimination and exclusion in predominantly white churches, serving as both a spiritual haven and a platform for social justice and civil rights activism.

Richard Allen: The founder of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, Richard Allen was a former enslaved person who became a prominent preacher and civil rights leader advocating for African American rights in the early 19th century.

Social Justice: A concept rooted in the belief that everyone deserves equal rights and opportunities, social justice movements often aim to address systemic inequalities, including those based on race, class, and gender.

Civil Rights Movement: A pivotal movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s, aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans, with significant involvement from religious organizations like the AME Church.

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) are institutions of higher education established before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 with the primary mission of educating Black Americans. These schools were created in response to the systemic disenfranchisement and discrimination faced by African Americans, providing them with access to quality education during a time when mainstream institutions often denied them entry based on race. HBCUs have played a crucial role in promoting social mobility, cultural identity, and community empowerment among African Americans.

Civil Rights Movement: A pivotal social movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States, significantly affecting the access of Black individuals to education and public facilities.

Affirmative Action: Policies aimed at increasing the representation of historically marginalized groups, including African Americans, in education and employment.

The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) was an organization founded by Marcus Garvey in 1914 that aimed to promote unity and self-reliance among people of African descent worldwide. UNIA sought to address the challenges of disenfranchisement and discrimination faced by African Americans and advocated for social, political, and economic empowerment. Through its various programs, it played a crucial role in shaping urban African American communities and fostering a sense of pride and identity during the early 20th century.

Marcus Garvey: A Jamaican political leader and activist who founded the UNIA and is known for his efforts to promote Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism.

Pan-Africanism: A movement that seeks to unify African people worldwide and emphasizes solidarity among people of African descent in their fight against oppression.

Black Nationalism: A political and social movement that advocates for the self-determination of Black people and promotes the idea of a separate Black identity and culture.