6.1 Brown v. Board of Education and school desegregation

Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, effectively overturning the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson. This ruling was a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement, as it challenged the legality of segregation and laid the groundwork for future civil rights legislation and court cases.

Plessy v. Ferguson: An 1896 Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine, which was later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: A comprehensive civil rights law that prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, building upon the foundation laid by Brown v. Board of Education.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, an organization that played a crucial role in advocating for civil rights and challenging segregation in court, including in Brown v. Board of Education.

The civil rights movement was a pivotal social and political movement in the United States, primarily during the 1950s and 1960s, aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans. It sought to dismantle systemic racism and achieve social justice through various forms of activism, legal challenges, and grassroots organizing.

Voting Rights Act of 1965: Legislation that aimed to eliminate barriers to voting for African Americans, particularly in the southern states, ensuring their right to vote was protected.

NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People): A civil rights organization founded in 1909 that played a crucial role in advocating for racial equality through legal challenges and public campaigns.

Nonviolent resistance: A philosophy and strategy used during the civil rights movement that emphasized peaceful protests, boycotts, and sit-ins to challenge unjust laws and practices.

Massive resistance refers to a strategy adopted primarily by Southern states in the United States during the civil rights movement to oppose desegregation, particularly in response to the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education. This approach involved a combination of legal challenges, political maneuvers, and grassroots mobilization aimed at maintaining the status quo of racial segregation in schools and other public spaces. Massive resistance not only reflected deep-seated racial tensions but also galvanized activism and furthered the national conversation on civil rights.

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning the previous 'separate but equal' doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson.

Segregation academies: Private schools established in the South during the 1950s and 1960s to avoid compliance with desegregation orders, often funded by white families seeking to maintain racially exclusive educational environments.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement aimed at ending racial discrimination and promoting equal rights for African Americans, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s.

Freedom of choice refers to the right of individuals to make decisions regarding their own lives, particularly in the context of education and social policies. In the discussion surrounding school desegregation, it emphasizes the ability for parents and students to select schools based on their preferences rather than being assigned to schools based solely on racial demographics. This concept became a contentious issue following landmark rulings like Brown v. Board of Education, as it raised questions about equity, access, and the consequences of school segregation.

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark Supreme Court case from 1954 that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional, thereby promoting school desegregation.

Desegregation: The process of ending the separation of two groups, typically referring to the integration of racially segregated schools or public facilities.

School Choice: An educational reform movement that advocates for giving parents and students the ability to choose their schools, whether they be public, charter, or private institutions.

Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of 'separate but equal.' This ruling legitimized Jim Crow laws and reinforced systemic discrimination against African Americans, impacting various aspects of civil rights and social justice in America.

Separate but Equal: A legal doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson that permitted racial segregation as long as the separate facilities were considered equal in quality.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local statutes enacted in the Southern United States that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised African Americans from the post-Reconstruction era until the Civil Rights Movement.

Civil Rights Movement: A social and political movement during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans, eventually leading to significant legal and legislative changes.

The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, is a significant constitutional amendment that granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and provided equal protection under the law. This amendment laid the foundation for many civil rights advancements and legal battles, making it a cornerstone for both civil rights legislation and the ongoing struggle for equality.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: A landmark piece of legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, building on the protections established by the 14th Amendment.

Plessy v. Ferguson: An 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine, which was later challenged by interpretations of the 14th Amendment.

Voting Rights Act of 1965: A significant piece of federal legislation that aimed to eliminate barriers to voting for African Americans, enhancing the political rights established by the 14th Amendment.

The equal protection clause is a part of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution that mandates that no state shall deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. This clause is essential for ensuring that individuals are treated equally under the law, regardless of race, gender, or other characteristics. It has been a pivotal legal standard in addressing discrimination and has played a significant role in landmark cases related to civil rights and social justice, particularly in school desegregation efforts.

Fourteenth Amendment: An amendment to the U.S. Constitution ratified in 1868, which grants citizenship rights and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States.

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, based on the equal protection clause.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing legal recognition and federal protection of the citizenship rights enumerated in the Constitution.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a pivotal civil rights protest that began on December 5, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, when African Americans refused to ride city buses to challenge racial segregation. This boycott was a response to systemic racism and aimed at ending discriminatory practices on public transportation, highlighting the broader struggle against Jim Crow laws and segregation.

Rosa Parks: An African American civil rights activist whose refusal to give up her bus seat to a white man sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Martin Luther King Jr.: A key leader of the civil rights movement who emerged during the boycott and advocated for nonviolent resistance and social change.

Civil Rights Movement: A mass protest movement against racial segregation and discrimination in the United States that gained momentum during the 1950s and 1960s.

The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, held on August 28, 1963, was a pivotal civil rights demonstration where over 250,000 people gathered in Washington, D.C. to advocate for economic and racial justice. This monumental event highlighted the ongoing struggles for civil rights, influencing future legislation and social movements aimed at achieving equality and justice for African Americans, linking it to crucial constitutional amendments, landmark court decisions on desegregation, and debates on affirmative action.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: A landmark piece of federal legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, significantly advancing the civil rights movement.

Martin Luther King Jr.: A prominent leader in the American civil rights movement known for his advocacy of nonviolent protest and his iconic 'I Have a Dream' speech delivered during the March on Washington.

Voting Rights Act of 1965: A significant piece of federal legislation aimed at overcoming legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote.

The Southern Manifesto was a document written in 1956 by Southern congressmen in response to the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. This manifesto asserted that the court's ruling was a violation of states' rights and encouraged Southern states to resist desegregation efforts, emphasizing the commitment to maintaining segregation and opposing federal intervention in local affairs.

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark Supreme Court case from 1954 that ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson.

Dixiecrats: A political party formed in 1948 by Southern Democrats who opposed civil rights reforms and the integration of African Americans into society.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and gaining equal rights for African Americans, seeking to dismantle segregationist laws.

The Little Rock Nine refers to a group of nine African American students who enrolled at Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas in 1957, marking a significant event in the struggle for school desegregation following the Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. This event highlighted the challenges and resistance faced by African Americans in their pursuit of equal education and civil rights, as the students encountered violent opposition and had to be escorted by federal troops to ensure their safety.

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark Supreme Court case in 1954 that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional, effectively outlawing school segregation.

Orval Faubus: The governor of Arkansas during the Little Rock crisis, who opposed the integration of Central High School and called out the National Guard to prevent the Little Rock Nine from entering.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement in the United States aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was landmark legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. This pivotal law aimed to end segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination, shaping the future of civil rights and social justice movements.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until the Civil Rights Movement.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC): A federal agency created by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to enforce laws against workplace discrimination and ensure equal opportunity in employment.

Title IX: A federal law enacted in 1972 that prohibits gender discrimination in any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance, expanding the principles of the Civil Rights Act.

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) was a landmark piece of federal legislation that aimed to address educational inequality by providing federal funding to public schools, particularly those serving low-income students. This act was a crucial development in the context of the civil rights movement, as it sought to enhance educational opportunities and promote equal access to quality education for all children, regardless of their socioeconomic background.

Title I: A provision within the ESEA that provides federal funding to schools with a high percentage of students from low-income families to improve their educational programs.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans, which influenced many pieces of legislation, including the ESEA.

Desegregation: The process of ending the separation of students based on race in public schools, which was legally mandated by the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education.

Thurgood Marshall was a groundbreaking civil rights lawyer and the first African American Supreme Court Justice, serving from 1967 to 1991. His legal career was marked by a strong commitment to fighting racial injustice, notably through his role in key court cases that advanced the cause of desegregation and equal rights, shaping the legal landscape of America during the mid-20th century.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, a civil rights organization co-founded by Marshall, focused on combating racial discrimination and promoting social justice.

Civil Rights Movement: A pivotal social movement aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans, which gained momentum during the 1950s and 1960s.

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark Supreme Court case in 1954 where Thurgood Marshall argued that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, leading to the court's decision that effectively overturned 'separate but equal' doctrine.

The NAACP, or the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, is a civil rights organization founded in 1909 to fight for racial equality and eliminate discrimination against African Americans. The organization played a crucial role in challenging Jim Crow laws, advocating for civil rights legislation, and addressing issues such as lynching, disenfranchisement, and segregation.

Civil Rights Act: A landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, which was essential in advancing the goals of the NAACP.

Lynchings: The illegal execution of individuals by a mob, often racially motivated, that was a significant issue the NAACP sought to combat through advocacy and public awareness campaigns.

Thurgood Marshall: A prominent civil rights lawyer who served as the chief counsel for the NAACP and played a key role in landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education, which ended racial segregation in public schools.

Charles Hamilton Houston was a prominent African American lawyer and civil rights activist who played a crucial role in the fight against racial segregation in the United States. He is best known for his work in preparing the legal groundwork for the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education, advocating for the desegregation of public schools and challenging the constitutionality of 'separate but equal' educational policies.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, an organization founded in 1909 to fight for civil rights and combat racial discrimination.

Thurgood Marshall: An African American lawyer who succeeded Charles Hamilton Houston at the NAACP and argued the Brown v. Board of Education case before the Supreme Court, eventually becoming the first Black Supreme Court Justice.

Plessy v. Ferguson: 'Plessy v. Ferguson' was an 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine, which Houston aimed to overturn.

Oliver Hill was a prominent African American civil rights attorney who played a crucial role in the legal battles against racial segregation, particularly in the context of school desegregation efforts. He was instrumental in challenging discriminatory practices in education and was a key figure in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education, which ultimately led to the Supreme Court's decision declaring state-sponsored school segregation unconstitutional.

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, effectively overturning the Plessy v. Ferguson decision that upheld 'separate but equal'.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, an organization founded in 1909 to fight for civil rights and combat racial discrimination through legal challenges and advocacy.

Thurgood Marshall: The first African American Supreme Court Justice who was a leading civil rights lawyer, known for his work with the NAACP and his role in arguing the Brown v. Board of Education case.

Spottswood Robinson was a prominent African American lawyer and civil rights activist known for his significant role in the legal battles against segregation in the United States. He served as the chief legal counsel for the NAACP in Virginia and was instrumental in the Brown v. Board of Education case, which led to the landmark Supreme Court decision that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. Robinson's work laid the groundwork for desegregation efforts across the nation.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, an organization founded in 1909 to fight for civil rights and against racial discrimination.

Thurgood Marshall: An influential civil rights lawyer who was the first African American Supreme Court Justice and played a key role in the Brown v. Board of Education case.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans.

Ruby Bridges is an iconic figure in the American civil rights movement, known for being the first African American child to integrate an all-white elementary school in the South. At just six years old, she walked into William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans in 1960, facing hostility and protests, which highlighted the deep-seated racism and resistance to desegregation following the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision.

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark Supreme Court case from 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, leading to the desegregation of schools across the United States.

Civil Rights Movement: A social movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans.

Integration: The process of ending racial segregation by bringing people of different races into equal participation in various aspects of society, particularly in schools.