The Middle Ages Unit 12 Review: Evolving Warfare

Origins and Causes

• The Hundred Years' War began in 1337 due to a succession dispute over the French throne between the House of Plantagenet, rulers of England, and the House of Valois, rulers of France
• Edward III of England claimed the French throne through his mother, Isabella of France, daughter of Philip IV of France
• The French nobility rejected Edward III's claim, citing the Salic law, which prohibited inheritance through the female line
• Tensions escalated due to the English possession of Gascony, a duchy in southwestern France, which the French kings sought to reclaim
• The Count of Artois, Robert III, encouraged Edward III to assert his claim to the French throne, leading to the outbreak of war
  • Robert III had been exiled from France and sought to regain his lands through English support
• Economic factors, such as the lucrative wool trade between England and Flanders, also contributed to the conflict
  • The English sought to protect their trade interests and maintain their influence in the Low Countries
• The war was further fueled by the long-standing rivalry between England and France, which had been growing since the Norman Conquest of England in 1066

Key Players and Factions

• The House of Plantagenet, led by Edward III and later his grandson Richard II, fought to assert their claim to the French throne
  • The Black Prince, Edward of Woodstock, son of Edward III, was a renowned military commander during the early stages of the war
• The House of Valois, led by Philip VI and his successors John II, Charles V, and Charles VI, defended their right to rule France
  • Bertrand du Guesclin, a French military commander, played a crucial role in the French victories during the later stages of the war
• The Duchy of Burgundy, initially allied with the French, later shifted its support to the English due to political and economic interests
  • Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, married Margaret, heiress to the County of Flanders, strengthening the ties between Burgundy and England
• The Kingdom of Scotland, allied with France through the Auld Alliance, provided military support and a strategic diversion against the English
• The Papacy, based in Avignon during the early stages of the war, initially supported the French but later adopted a more neutral stance
  • Pope Clement VI attempted to mediate peace between England and France in 1343 but was unsuccessful
• Mercenary companies, such as the White Company led by John Hawkwood, fought for both sides during the conflict
• The French peasantry, suffering from the devastation of the war and heavy taxation, staged several uprisings, such as the Jacquerie in 1358

Timeline of Major Events

• 1337: The Hundred Years' War begins with Edward III of England's claim to the French throne
• 1340: The English victory at the Battle of Sluys establishes English naval supremacy in the English Channel
• 1346: The Battle of Crécy, a decisive English victory, showcases the effectiveness of the English longbow against the French cavalry
  • The longbow, with its superior range and penetrating power, decimates the French forces
• 1347: The English capture the port city of Calais after a prolonged siege, securing a vital foothold on the continent
• 1356: The Battle of Poitiers results in another significant English victory and the capture of the French king, John II
  • The English use of dismounted men-at-arms and longbowmen proves highly effective against the French cavalry
• 1360: The Treaty of Brétigny is signed, granting England extensive territories in France and a large ransom for the release of John II
• 1369: The war resumes as Charles V of France, taking advantage of the Black Prince's illness and the English preoccupation with Castile, renounces the Treaty of Brétigny
• 1415: Henry V of England invades France and achieves a decisive victory at the Battle of Agincourt, despite being outnumbered
  • The English longbowmen once again prove their worth, decimating the French cavalry and men-at-arms
• 1420: The Treaty of Troyes is signed, recognizing Henry V as the heir to the French throne and his marriage to Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI
• 1429: Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl, leads the French forces to lift the siege of Orléans, marking a turning point in the war
  • Joan's leadership and the renewed French morale contribute to a series of French victories
• 1453: The Battle of Castillon, the last major engagement of the war, results in a decisive French victory and the end of English rule in Gascony
  • The French use of artillery, particularly cannons, proves decisive in breaching the English defenses
• 1475: The Treaty of Picquigny is signed, formally ending the Hundred Years' War and confirming French possession of all territories except Calais

Evolving Military Tactics

• The English reliance on the longbow revolutionized medieval warfare, as it allowed them to engage the enemy from a distance and penetrate heavy armor
  • English archers, often recruited from the yeoman class, underwent extensive training to master the longbow
  • The longbow had a range of up to 200 meters and could penetrate plate armor at close range
• The use of dismounted men-at-arms, fighting on foot with polearms and swords, proved effective against the French cavalry charges
  • The English adopted a defensive formation known as the "schiltron," with men-at-arms and pikemen forming a dense, bristling square
• The French initially relied heavily on cavalry charges, which proved ineffective against the English longbowmen and dismounted men-at-arms
  • The French knights, weighed down by heavy armor, were vulnerable to the English archers and infantry
• The French gradually adapted their tactics, employing more infantry and making better use of terrain and fortifications
  • Bertrand du Guesclin, the French commander, emphasized the use of guerrilla warfare and avoiding pitched battles
• The increasing use of mercenaries, particularly by the English, changed the nature of warfare, as professional soldiers fought for pay rather than feudal obligations
• The development of artillery, particularly cannons, began to change the balance of power in sieges and fortifications
  • The French use of cannons at the Battle of Castillon in 1453 demonstrated their effectiveness in breaching castle walls

Technological Advancements in Warfare

• The longbow, made of yew wood, revolutionized medieval warfare with its superior range and penetrating power compared to the crossbow
  • The longbow required extensive training and physical strength to use effectively, leading to the rise of professional archers
• Plate armor evolved during the Hundred Years' War, with the development of more sophisticated and specialized armor for different body parts
  • The coat of plates, made of overlapping metal plates riveted to a fabric or leather backing, provided increased protection for the torso
  • The bascinet helmet, with its pointed visor and neck guard, offered better protection for the head and face
• The use of gunpowder weapons, such as cannons and hand cannons, began to appear on the battlefield, although their impact was limited during this period
  • Cannons were primarily used in sieges to batter down castle walls and fortifications
  • Hand cannons, the precursors to firearms, were used by infantry but were still relatively inaccurate and slow to reload
• Improvements in castle architecture, such as the development of concentric castles with multiple layers of defenses, aimed to counter the increasing effectiveness of siege weapons
• The use of the pavise, a large shield used to protect archers and crossbowmen, became more common during the war
• The development of the windlass and pulley systems allowed for the construction of taller and more complex siege engines, such as the trebuchet
• Advancements in shipbuilding and navigation, such as the use of the sternpost rudder and the compass, enhanced the ability to transport troops and supplies by sea

Social and Economic Impact

• The Hundred Years' War had a devastating impact on the population of France, with estimates suggesting that the population declined by 20-50% in some regions
  • The widespread destruction of farmland, coupled with outbreaks of the Black Death, contributed to the demographic decline
• The war disrupted trade and commerce, particularly in the regions most affected by the fighting, such as Normandy and Gascony
  • The disruption of the wool trade between England and Flanders had significant economic consequences for both regions
• The cost of financing the war led to increased taxation and the development of more sophisticated fiscal systems in both England and France
  • The English Parliament gained greater influence as the crown relied on it to raise funds for the war effort
  • The French monarchy introduced new taxes, such as the gabelle (salt tax) and the taille (land tax), to finance the war
• The war contributed to the decline of the feudal system, as the importance of professional armies and the rise of nationalism began to overshadow feudal loyalties
• The conflict exacerbated social tensions, particularly in France, where the burden of taxation and the devastation of the war fell heavily on the peasantry
  • The Jacquerie, a peasant revolt in 1358, was a direct result of the hardships endured during the war
• The war also had a significant impact on the Catholic Church, as the Papacy, based in Avignon, was seen as being under French influence
  • The Great Schism of 1378, with rival popes in Rome and Avignon, further weakened the authority of the Church
• The prolonged nature of the conflict and the repeated devastation of the French countryside led to the emergence of a sense of national identity in France
  • The war helped to solidify the concept of France as a distinct nation, separate from the English territories on the continent

Legacy and Long-term Consequences

• The Hundred Years' War had a lasting impact on the political and social structures of both England and France
  • In England, the war contributed to the strengthening of Parliament and the development of a more centralized state under the Tudor dynasty
  • In France, the war led to the consolidation of royal power and the emergence of a strong national monarchy under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties
• The conflict played a significant role in the formation of national identities in both countries
  • The war helped to foster a sense of English national pride and unity, particularly after the victories at Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt
  • In France, the war contributed to the development of a French national consciousness, exemplified by figures such as Joan of Arc
• The war had a lasting impact on the English claim to the French throne, which would continue to be a source of tension between the two countries for centuries
  • The English monarchs continued to style themselves as Kings of France until 1801
• The Hundred Years' War laid the groundwork for future conflicts between England and France, such as the Italian Wars of the 16th century and the Seven Years' War of the 18th century
• The war accelerated the decline of the feudal system and the rise of professional armies, paving the way for the development of modern nation-states
• The economic and social upheaval caused by the war contributed to the eventual end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance in Europe
• The war had a lasting impact on the regions most affected by the fighting, particularly Normandy and Gascony, which experienced significant demographic and economic decline
• The legacy of the war can be seen in the cultural and artistic productions of both countries, such as the plays of Shakespeare and the paintings of the French Renaissance

Historiography and Modern Interpretations

• The Hundred Years' War has been the subject of extensive historical research and interpretation, with scholars debating its causes, consequences, and significance
• Traditional historiography often portrayed the war as a dynastic struggle between the English and French monarchies, with a focus on the military campaigns and battles
  • The works of Jean Froissart, a 14th-century chronicler, have been influential in shaping the traditional narrative of the war
• In the 20th century, historians began to place greater emphasis on the social, economic, and cultural aspects of the war
  • The Annales school, led by French historians such as Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel, emphasized the importance of long-term structural factors in shaping the course of the war
• Recent scholarship has focused on the impact of the war on ordinary people, particularly the peasantry and the urban populations
  • Works by historians such as Christopher Allmand and Anne Curry have highlighted the experiences of non-combatants and the social and economic consequences of the war
• Historians have also examined the role of religion and the Catholic Church in the conflict, particularly the impact of the Avignon Papacy and the Great Schism
• The development of military technology and tactics during the war has been a subject of significant interest, with scholars analyzing the impact of the longbow, gunpowder weapons, and siege warfare
• The war has also been studied from a gender perspective, with historians examining the roles of women such as Joan of Arc and the impact of the conflict on gender relations
• The Hundred Years' War has been placed in the broader context of the late medieval period, with scholars examining its connections to other significant events such as the Black Death and the Peasants' Revolt
• Modern interpretations have also considered the war's legacy in shaping the national identities and political structures of England and France, as well as its impact on the development of modern warfare and diplomacy