💸Principles of Economics Unit 23 – International Trade & Capital Flows

Key Concepts and Definitions

• International trade involves the exchange of goods, services, and capital across national borders
• Absolute advantage occurs when a country can produce a good or service more efficiently than any other country
• Comparative advantage exists when a country can produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than other countries
• Terms of trade represent the ratio at which a country can trade its exports for imports from other countries
• Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries and generate revenue for the government
• Quotas limit the quantity or value of goods that can be imported or exported during a specific period
• Embargo is a complete ban on trade with a particular country, often for political reasons
• Exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another currency, determining the purchasing power of a currency in international markets

Theories of International Trade

• Mercantilism, a dominant theory in the 16th-18th centuries, emphasized the importance of a positive balance of trade (exporting more than importing) to accumulate gold and silver
• Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage suggests that countries should specialize in producing goods they can make more efficiently than others and trade for goods they produce less efficiently
• David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage proposes that countries should specialize in goods they can produce at a lower opportunity cost, even if they don't have an absolute advantage
• Heckscher-Ohlin model explains international trade patterns based on countries' factor endowments (relative abundance of labor, capital, or land)
  • Countries will export goods that intensively use their abundant factors and import goods that intensively use their scarce factors
• New trade theory incorporates economies of scale, product differentiation, and imperfect competition to explain intra-industry trade and the role of multinational corporations
• Gravity model suggests that trade between two countries is proportional to their economic sizes (GDP) and inversely proportional to the distance between them

Comparative Advantage and Specialization

• Comparative advantage arises from differences in opportunity costs, which are determined by factors such as productivity, resource endowments, and technology
• Specialization based on comparative advantage leads to more efficient allocation of resources and increased global output
  • Countries can produce more by focusing on goods they have a comparative advantage in and trading for other goods
• Gains from trade include lower prices for consumers, increased variety of goods and services, and improved living standards
• Production possibilities frontier (PPF) illustrates the maximum combinations of two goods a country can produce given its resources and technology
  • Comparative advantage is determined by the slope of the PPF, which represents the opportunity cost of producing one good in terms of the other
• Limitations of comparative advantage include the assumption of perfect competition, constant returns to scale, and no transportation costs
• Dynamic comparative advantage recognizes that advantages can change over time due to factors like technological progress, investment in human capital, and government policies

Trade Policies and Barriers

• Free trade refers to the unrestricted flow of goods and services across national borders without government intervention
• Trade protectionism involves the use of tariffs, quotas, and other barriers to shield domestic industries from foreign competition
  • Arguments for protectionism include protecting infant industries, preserving jobs, and ensuring national security
• Import substitution industrialization (ISI) is a development strategy that aims to replace foreign imports with domestic production by protecting local industries
• Export-oriented industrialization (EOI) focuses on producing goods for export markets, often through the use of export subsidies and other incentives
• Non-tariff barriers include regulations, standards, and administrative procedures that can hinder trade (licensing requirements, complex customs procedures)
• World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that oversees global trade rules and resolves trade disputes among member countries
  • WTO promotes trade liberalization through negotiations and agreements (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, or GATT)
• Regional trade agreements (RTAs) are treaties between two or more countries to reduce trade barriers and promote economic integration (European Union, NAFTA)

Exchange Rates and Currency Markets

• Exchange rates can be fixed (pegged to another currency or a basket of currencies), floating (determined by market forces of supply and demand), or managed (a combination of both)
• Appreciation occurs when a currency increases in value relative to another currency, while depreciation is a decrease in value
• Purchasing power parity (PPP) theory suggests that exchange rates should adjust to equalize the prices of goods and services across countries
• Interest rate parity (IRP) states that the difference in interest rates between two countries should equal the expected change in their exchange rate
• Central banks can intervene in currency markets by buying or selling foreign exchange reserves to influence exchange rates
  • Monetary policy decisions (interest rates) and fiscal policy (government spending and taxation) can also affect exchange rates
• Currency crises occur when a speculative attack on a country's currency results in a sharp depreciation or forces the central bank to defend the currency by selling foreign reserves or raising interest rates
• Optimum currency area (OCA) theory outlines the criteria for countries to benefit from sharing a common currency (labor mobility, economic integration, similar business cycles)

Balance of Payments

• The balance of payments (BOP) is a record of all economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world over a specific period
• Current account includes trade in goods and services, primary income (investment income), and secondary income (transfers)
  • Trade balance is the difference between exports and imports of goods
  • Current account balance is the sum of the trade balance, net primary income, and net secondary income
• Capital account records transactions involving the transfer of ownership of fixed assets and non-produced, non-financial assets (patents, copyrights)
• Financial account tracks transactions involving financial assets and liabilities (foreign direct investment, portfolio investment, and reserve assets)
• BOP identity states that the sum of the current account, capital account, and financial account should equal zero (any discrepancy is recorded as errors and omissions)
• Current account deficits can be financed by capital inflows (borrowing from abroad) or drawing down foreign exchange reserves
• Persistent current account imbalances can lead to unsustainable external debt, currency crises, and macroeconomic instability

Global Capital Flows and Investment

• Foreign direct investment (FDI) involves establishing a lasting interest and control in a foreign enterprise (building factories, acquiring companies)
  • Horizontal FDI aims to serve the host country market, while vertical FDI seeks to exploit lower production costs for export
• Portfolio investment refers to the purchase of foreign financial assets (stocks, bonds) without active management or control
• Push factors for capital flows include low interest rates and weak economic growth in the source country
• Pull factors attract capital to the recipient country (high returns, strong growth prospects, stable political and economic environment)
• Capital controls are measures taken by governments to regulate the flow of capital into and out of the country (taxes on inflows, restrictions on outflows)
• Sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) are state-owned investment funds that manage a country's foreign assets for long-term returns
• International financial institutions (IFIs) provide loans, grants, and technical assistance to countries for development and balance of payments support (World Bank, International Monetary Fund)

Current Issues and Debates in International Trade

• Globalization has led to increased economic integration and interdependence among countries, but also raised concerns about income inequality, job losses, and cultural homogenization
• Trade wars occur when countries engage in tit-for-tat retaliation by imposing tariffs and other trade barriers on each other's goods
  • Recent US-China trade tensions have led to escalating tariffs and disruptions in global supply chains
• Trade and environment debate centers on the impact of trade liberalization on environmental degradation, pollution, and climate change
  • Some argue that trade can promote the spread of eco-friendly technologies and practices, while others worry about a "race to the bottom" in environmental standards
• Labor standards and trade have become a contentious issue, with concerns about the exploitation of workers in developing countries and the loss of jobs in developed countries
  • Proposals include linking trade agreements to minimum labor standards and providing assistance for displaced workers
• Trade in services has grown rapidly with advances in technology and communication, but faces challenges related to regulation, data privacy, and the movement of skilled professionals
• Digital trade, including e-commerce and data flows, has become an increasingly important aspect of international trade, prompting discussions on taxation, cybersecurity, and digital infrastructure
• Brexit, the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union, has raised questions about the future of regional integration and the potential impact on trade and investment flows