1. What are teratogens and during which period of prenatal development is the embryo most vulnerable to their effects?

2. How can maternal illness, genetic mutations, hormonal imbalances, and environmental influences affect prenatal development?

3. What factors determine the extent to which exposure to harmful substances during pregnancy might affect the developing fetus?

1. What is a reflex and how do survival reflexes like rooting and sucking help newborns meet their basic needs?

2. How do the grasping, Moro, stepping, and Babinski reflexes differ in their triggers and duration?

3. Why do most newborn reflexes disappear within the first six months and what replaces them?

1. What is gross motor coordination and how does motor development progress from the body's midline outward?

2. How do fine motor skills develop and what is the significance of the pincer grasp?

3. Why do babies develop head control before walking, and how does body proportionality change during infancy?

1. What did the visual cliff experiment demonstrate about infants' depth perception and fear of heights?

2. How do 12-month-old infants use social referencing to guide their behavior in ambiguous situations?

3. What criticisms have been raised about the visual cliff experiment and what do they suggest about the role of experience in perceptual development?

1. What is a critical period and how does heightened brain plasticity during these periods affect development?

2. How do early visual experiences and language exposure during critical periods affect later abilities?

3. What did Konrad Lorenz discover about imprinting in goslings and how does this relate to human attachment?

4. How does the sensitive period for human attachment differ from the critical period for attachment in other animal species?

1. What triggers puberty and how do primary sex characteristics develop in males and females?

2. What is menarche and spermarche and why is the timing of puberty varying earlier than in previous generations?

1. What is a growth spurt and what is the typical pattern of physical growth during this period?

2. How does the timing and experience of early maturation differ between girls and boys?

3. How does the growth spurt affect body proportions and the distribution of muscle and fat?

1. What are secondary sex characteristics and how do they differ from primary sex characteristics?

2. How do testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone differ in their production and functions in males and females?

1. How do hormonal changes and brain development contribute to mood swings and heightened emotions in adolescents?

2. How does puberty affect family relationships and adolescent independence?

1. What is menopause and how does it differ from the changes in reproductive ability that men experience?

2. How do changes in reproductive ability affect self-concept, sexual relationships, and family dynamics in adulthood?

1. What physical changes occur by middle age in muscle mass, bone density, metabolism, and sensory acuity?

2. How do decreases in muscle strength and bone density affect mobility and flexibility in older adults?

3. What is presbyopia and presbycusis and how do these age-related changes affect daily functioning?

4. How do slowing cognitive processes and nerve conduction velocity affect reaction time in older adults?