1. Why did Henry VIII seek an annulment from Katherine of Aragon and what prevented Pope Clement VII from granting it?

2. What was the Act of Supremacy and how did it demonstrate Henry VIII's power over both religion and politics?

3. How did Henry VIII's marriages reflect his political goals and what consequences did his actions have for those who opposed him?

1. What was the Treason Act and how did Henry VIII use it to enforce religious conformity in England?

2. How did the Church of England differ from both Roman Catholicism and Protestantism under Henry VIII?

1. How did the religious policies of Edward VI and Mary Tudor differ, and what does this reveal about the instability of religious reform in England?

1. What was the Elizabethan Settlement and how did it attempt to resolve religious conflict in England?

2. Who were the Puritans and why did they pose a threat to Elizabeth's religious and political authority?

3. What legal acts did Elizabeth I use to solidify control over the Church of England and religious life?

1. How did the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella contribute to the centralization of power in Spain?

2. What role did the Spanish Inquisition play in Ferdinand and Isabella's consolidation of power and religious unity?

3. How did the completion of the Reconquista in 1492 affect Spain's religious composition and international status?

1. How did the Hundred Years' War paradoxically allow French kings to centralize power despite leaving France in shambles?

2. What methods did Louis XI use to weaken the aristocracy and strengthen royal power in France?

3. How did the Concordat of Bologna increase King Francis I's control over the Catholic Church in France?

4. What was the Edict of Nantes and how did it help unify France after decades of religious war?

1. How did Henry VII establish the Tudor dynasty and what strategies did he use to increase royal power?

2. What was the Court of the Star Chamber and how did it become a tool for royal control over the nobility?

1. What was the Schmalkaldic League and why did Charles V tolerate it despite his opposition to Protestantism?

2. How did the Peace of Augsburg represent a compromise between religious and political authority in the Holy Roman Empire?

1. What role did guilds play in local governance and how did they maintain their power while remaining loyal to monarchs?

1. How did the Medici family's wealth and patronage allow them to influence both the arts and politics in Renaissance Italy?

1. How did the rise of the gentry in England represent a shift in the basis of power and status away from inherited nobility?

1. How did nobles of the robe in France gain power differently from traditional nobles of the sword, and what was the significance of this change?

1. What was Machiavellianism and how did Machiavelli's ideas about power differ from traditional religious views of governance?

1. What was absolute sovereignty according to Jean Bodin and how did the doctrine of divine right support this theory?

2. How did Bodin's view of the state as separate from the monarch's personal holdings represent a new concept of political organization?

1. What was natural law according to Hugo Grotius and how did it differ from theories based on divine right?

2. How did Grotius's ideas about international law and the rules of war influence the Peace of Westphalia?