5.4 Control Theories

Control Theories

Control theories flip the usual criminological question on its head. Instead of asking why do people commit crimes?, they ask why don't people commit crimes? The assumption is that everyone is capable of criminal behavior, and what holds most people back are social bonds and self-control. Understanding these restraining forces is central to Unit 5's focus on how social structure and social processes shape behavior.

Types of Control Theories

Social Bonding Theory, developed by Travis Hirschi in 1969, argues that the strength of a person's bonds to society determines how likely they are to engage in crime. Hirschi identified four elements of the social bond: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief (covered in detail below). The core idea is straightforward: the more connected you are to conventional society, the more you have to lose by breaking its rules.

Self-Control Theory, proposed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi in 1990, shifts the focus inward. It argues that low self-control is the primary individual-level cause of criminal behavior. Low self-control develops in early childhood, mainly through ineffective parenting: lack of monitoring, failure to recognize problem behavior, and inconsistent discipline. People with low self-control tend to be impulsive, risk-seeking, short-sighted, and drawn to simple rather than complex tasks. This doesn't just predict crime; it also predicts other risky behaviors like substance abuse and reckless driving.

The General Theory of Crime is actually the formal name for Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory, though it integrates ideas from both approaches. Its key claim is that criminal behavior results from the combination of low self-control and opportunity. Neither factor alone is sufficient. A person with low self-control who never encounters an easy target may not offend, and a person with high self-control won't take advantage of criminal opportunities even when they arise.

Role of Social Bonds

Social bonds are the connections and attachments that tie individuals to conventional society. Hirschi's four elements each function as a distinct protective factor against crime:

• Attachment refers to emotional connections to others, especially parents, teachers, and peers. A young person with strong attachment to a parent cares about that parent's opinion and is less willing to risk disappointing them. Positive parent-child relationships and close friendships are key examples.
• Commitment is the investment a person has in conventional activities like education and career. The more you've invested in building a future, the higher the cost of throwing it away through criminal behavior. A student working toward a college degree, for instance, has a strong stake in conformity.
• Involvement is about time. The more hours you spend in prosocial activities (sports teams, part-time jobs, community volunteering), the fewer hours are available for getting into trouble. This is the simplest of the four elements, and also the one with the weakest empirical support.
• Belief refers to acceptance of conventional moral values and the legitimacy of laws. Someone who genuinely believes stealing is wrong is less likely to steal, regardless of opportunity.

When these bonds weaken or break, the risk of criminal behavior increases. Dysfunctional family relationships, dropping out of school, unemployment, and rejection of mainstream values all erode the social bond.

Self-Control and Criminal Behavior

The self-control perspective makes a bold claim: low self-control, established by roughly age 8-10, remains relatively stable throughout life and is the strongest predictor of criminal behavior across all demographics and crime types.

But self-control alone doesn't produce crime. Opportunity is the other half of the equation. Here's how the interaction works:

1. A person develops low self-control in childhood due to poor parental socialization (inadequate supervision, inconsistent or absent discipline, failure to correct problem behavior early).
2. That person encounters a situation where crime is possible and easy (unsecured property, a vulnerable victim, lack of surveillance).
3. Because they are impulsive and focused on immediate gratification, they act on the opportunity rather than considering long-term consequences.

Someone with high self-control in the same situation would weigh the risks and walk away. Someone with low self-control but no opportunity has nothing to act on. Crime happens at the intersection of the two.

Opportunities also vary by context. Urban environments, poorly lit areas, and settings with minimal supervision tend to present more criminal opportunities, which is why self-control theory connects naturally to situational and routine activities approaches.

Evidence for Control Theories

Social bonding theory has received substantial empirical support. Research consistently finds that stronger attachment (particularly to parents) and greater commitment (particularly to school) are associated with lower delinquency rates. Family attachment and school engagement stand out as especially strong protective factors across multiple studies.

Self-control theory is one of the most tested theories in criminology. Studies consistently find a significant relationship between low self-control and a wide range of criminal and deviant behaviors, from property crime to violent offenses to substance abuse. Longitudinal research also supports the stability claim: self-control measured in childhood predicts criminal behavior well into adulthood.

The general theory of crime's interaction effect (low self-control × opportunity) has also found support. Crime rates tend to be higher in settings where criminal opportunities are more available, and individuals with low self-control are disproportionately likely to offend in those settings.

Implications for crime prevention flow directly from these findings:

• Strengthening social bonds: Family support programs, mentoring, and school-based interventions can build the attachments and commitments that keep people connected to conventional society.
• Early childhood intervention: Parent training programs that teach effective monitoring and consistent discipline can promote self-control development before it stabilizes. This is where control theory suggests prevention efforts have the greatest payoff.
• Reducing opportunity: Situational crime prevention strategies like increased surveillance, better lighting, and target hardening (e.g., locks, security systems) reduce the chances that low self-control translates into actual offending.