World War I dismantled empires that had dominated global politics for centuries. The Ottoman Empire collapsed, Germany lost every overseas colony it held, and the victorious Allied Powers redrew maps across the Middle East, Africa, and the Pacific. But this reshuffling didn't bring stability. Instead, it fueled nationalist movements across colonized regions, as people who expected self-determination after the war found themselves handed to new colonial masters instead.
The Decline of Old Empires and the Rise of Nationalist Movements
Ottoman Empire Dissolution
The Ottoman Empire entered World War I allied with the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary). When the Central Powers lost, the Allies moved to carve up Ottoman territory.
- The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) divided the empire into spheres of influence and mandates controlled by Britain, France, Italy, and Greece. The Ottoman government never ratified it because the terms were so punishing.
- Turkish nationalists rejected the treaty outright. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923), defeating Allied-backed forces and establishing the modern Republic of Turkey.
- The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) replaced Sèvres, recognizing Turkey's independence and sovereignty while defining its modern borders.
Beyond Turkey, the Ottoman collapse created new states across the Middle East. Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine didn't become independent countries right away. They were placed under British and French mandates, meaning European powers governed them with the stated goal of preparing them for eventual self-rule. In practice, these mandates often functioned like colonies under a different name.
German Colonies Redistribution
Under the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. Rather than granting these territories independence, the League of Nations created the Mandate System, which assigned them to Allied Powers who were supposed to guide them toward self-governance.
Here's how Germany's former colonies were divided:
- Africa:
- German East Africa was split between Britain (which received Tanganyika) and Belgium (which received Ruanda-Urundi, modern-day Rwanda and Burundi)
- German Southwest Africa (modern-day Namibia) went to the Union of South Africa
- Togoland and Kamerun were divided between Britain and France
- Pacific:
- Japan received the Marshall Islands, Caroline Islands, and Mariana Islands
- Australia took over German New Guinea
- New Zealand administered German Samoa
The mandate system had three categories (A, B, and C) based on how "ready" the League considered each territory for independence. In reality, the populations of these territories had no say in who governed them, and many mandates lasted decades.
Nationalist Movements and Colonial Resistance
The post-war settlement promised self-determination but delivered more colonialism. That contradiction radicalized independence movements across Africa and Asia. People who had contributed soldiers and resources to the Allied war effort expected political change. When it didn't come, organized resistance grew.
India saw the most sustained campaign. The Indian National Congress, with Mahatma Gandhi as its most prominent leader, pursued non-violent civil disobedience against British rule. The Salt March (1930), where Gandhi led thousands on a 240-mile walk to protest the British salt tax, became a global symbol of peaceful resistance. The Quit India Movement (1942) later demanded an immediate end to British rule.
Africa produced multiple nationalist organizations:
- The Wafd Party in Egypt pushed for independence from Britain
- The Destour Party in Tunisia organized against French colonial rule
- The African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa opposed the discriminatory policies of the white minority government
Southeast Asia followed a similar pattern. The Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ) resisted French colonial rule, while the Indonesian National Party (PNI), founded by Sukarno, mobilized support for independence from the Dutch.
None of these movements achieved full independence during the interwar period. But they built the organizational networks, ideological frameworks, and popular support that made decolonization possible after World War II. The interwar years were where the groundwork was laid.