What is Latin phrases in AP Latin?

Multi-word expressions in Latin that appear on the required vocabulary list for the Aeneid war scenes.

What is Latin words in AP Latin?

Words from the Latin language that appear on the required vocabulary list for the Aeneid war scenes.

What is case in AP Latin?

The grammatical form of a Latin noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates its function in a sentence (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, or vocative).

What is cognates in AP Latin?

Words in different languages that share a common origin and similar form, often helping to determine meaning through comparison with English or other known languages.

What is context clues in AP Latin?

Information from surrounding words and sentences that help determine the meaning of unfamiliar or ambiguous vocabulary.

What is gender in AP Latin?

The grammatical classification of Latin nouns, adjectives, and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter.

What is mood in AP Latin?

The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates the mode or manner of the action, such as indicative (factual), subjunctive (hypothetical), or imperative (command).

What is number in AP Latin?

The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.

What is person in AP Latin?

The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates whether the subject is first person (I/we), second person (you), or third person (he/she/it/they).

What is polysemous words in AP Latin?

Words that have multiple distinct meanings, requiring context clues to determine which meaning is intended in a specific passage.

AP Latin Vocabulary – 573 terms & definitions

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Key Terms

483 essential vocabulary terms and definitions to know for your AP Latin exam

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Key Terms by Unit

📜Unit 1 – Suggested Practice – Latin Prose

Term	Definition
Latin phrases	Multi-word expressions in Latin that appear on the required vocabulary list for the Aeneid war scenes.
Latin words	Words from the Latin language that appear on the required vocabulary list for the Aeneid war scenes.

1.1 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 1, Lines 1-209

Term	Definition
case	The grammatical form of a Latin noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates its function in a sentence (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, or vocative).
cognates	Words in different languages that share a common origin and similar form, often helping to determine meaning through comparison with English or other known languages.
context clues	Information from surrounding words and sentences that help determine the meaning of unfamiliar or ambiguous vocabulary.
gender	The grammatical classification of Latin nouns, adjectives, and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter.
mood	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates the mode or manner of the action, such as indicative (factual), subjunctive (hypothetical), or imperative (command).
number	The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.
person	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates whether the subject is first person (I/we), second person (you), or third person (he/she/it/they).
polysemous words	Words that have multiple distinct meanings, requiring context clues to determine which meaning is intended in a specific passage.
prefixes	Word elements added to the beginning of a root word that modify or clarify its meaning.
roots	The core element of a word that carries its primary meaning and can be combined with prefixes and suffixes.
suffixes	Word elements added at the end of a root word that modify its meaning or grammatical function.
tense	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating the time of an action (present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future, or future perfect).
voice	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating whether the subject performs the action (active voice) or receives the action (passive voice).
word formation patterns	Recurring structures in Latin words, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root elements, that help identify word meanings.

1.2 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 1, Lines 418–440

Term	Definition
case	The grammatical form of a Latin noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates its function in a sentence (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, or vocative).
cognates	Words in different languages that share a common origin and similar form, often helping to determine meaning through comparison with English or other known languages.
context clues	Information from surrounding words and sentences that help determine the meaning of unfamiliar or ambiguous vocabulary.
gender	The grammatical classification of Latin nouns, adjectives, and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter.
mood	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates the mode or manner of the action, such as indicative (factual), subjunctive (hypothetical), or imperative (command).
number	The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.
person	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates whether the subject is first person (I/we), second person (you), or third person (he/she/it/they).
polysemous words	Words that have multiple distinct meanings, requiring context clues to determine which meaning is intended in a specific passage.
prefixes	Word elements added to the beginning of a root word that modify or clarify its meaning.
roots	The core element of a word that carries its primary meaning and can be combined with prefixes and suffixes.
suffixes	Word elements added at the end of a root word that modify its meaning or grammatical function.
tense	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating the time of an action (present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future, or future perfect).
voice	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating whether the subject performs the action (active voice) or receives the action (passive voice).
word formation patterns	Recurring structures in Latin words, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root elements, that help identify word meanings.

1.3 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 1, Lines 494–578

Term	Definition
case	The grammatical form of a Latin noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates its function in a sentence (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, or vocative).
context clues	Information from surrounding words and sentences that help determine the meaning of unfamiliar or ambiguous vocabulary.
gender	The grammatical classification of Latin nouns, adjectives, and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter.
mood	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates the mode or manner of the action, such as indicative (factual), subjunctive (hypothetical), or imperative (command).
number	The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.
person	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates whether the subject is first person (I/we), second person (you), or third person (he/she/it/they).
polysemous words	Words that have multiple distinct meanings, requiring context clues to determine which meaning is intended in a specific passage.
prefixes	Word elements added to the beginning of a root word that modify or clarify its meaning.
roots	The core element of a word that carries its primary meaning and can be combined with prefixes and suffixes.
suffixes	Word elements added at the end of a root word that modify its meaning or grammatical function.
tense	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating the time of an action (present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future, or future perfect).
voice	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating whether the subject performs the action (active voice) or receives the action (passive voice).
word formation patterns	Recurring structures in Latin words, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root elements, that help identify word meanings.

🌋Unit 2 – Required – Pliny's Letters: Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius

Term	Definition
household	In Roman society, a domestic unit consisting of a husband, wife, children, and enslaved people under the authority of the paterfamilias.
paterfamilias	The male head of a Roman household who held legal authority and power over all family members and enslaved people within the household.
Roman family structure	The hierarchical and patriarchal organization of the Roman family, with the paterfamilias holding supreme authority over all household members.
Roman fleet	The naval military force of Rome, which Pliny the Elder served as an admiral.

Term	Definition
dependent clause	A clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and depends on a main clause for its meaning.
main clause	An independent clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence, as opposed to a dependent clause.

2.1 Caesar, Gallic War, Book 1, Chapters 1–7

Term	Definition
ablative absolute	A Latin grammatical construction consisting of a noun or pronoun in the ablative case with a modifying participle, used to express the circumstances or conditions under which the main action occurs.
ablative case	A Latin grammatical case with multiple functions, including showing the means, agent, manner, time, place, or separation in a sentence.
accusative case	A Latin grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a verb and, without a preposition, to indicate direction or destination ('place to where').
alliteration	The repetition of the same initial consonant sound in successive words, used to draw attention to ideas or create rhythmic quality.
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, sentences, or lines, used to emphasize ideas and create momentum.
Annals	A historical work by Tacitus that examined the lives of emperors and the history of the Roman Empire in the first century CE.
author's life and background	The biographical and contextual information about an author that can inform the interpretation and meaning of their literary works.
Bay of Naples	A body of water on the west coast of the Italian peninsula where Mt. Vesuvius is located and where the Roman navy was stationed at Misenum.
comedy	A dramatic genre intended to entertain through humor, often depicting ordinary characters and situations with a lighthearted or satirical tone.
comparative adjective	An adjective form in Latin that expresses a higher degree of a quality and can be accompanied by the ablative case to show comparison.
dialogues	A literary form presenting a conversation between two or more characters, often used to explore philosophical or rhetorical ideas.
didactic poetry	Poetry written with the primary purpose of instructing or teaching the reader about a subject, often philosophical or technical in nature.
Emperor Trajan	Roman emperor who ruled from 98 to 117 CE and expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent while overseeing major public building programs.
epigrams	Brief, pointed poems or inscriptions, often witty or satirical in nature, typically expressing a single thought or observation.
epistles	A major genre of Roman literature consisting of letters, which were either real correspondence or fictional compositions, often published in collections.
eruption of Mt. Vesuvius	The volcanic eruption in 79 CE that destroyed and buried several Roman towns including Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, and Stabiae.
everyday life	The ordinary activities, routines, and domestic experiences of people in a particular historical period or society.
figurative language	Language that uses figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, personification, and symbolism to convey meaning beyond the literal sense of words.
figurative use	The use of words in a non-literal, symbolic, or analogous sense to create meaning beyond their dictionary definitions.
genre	A category or type of literary work with distinctive characteristics, conventions, and features.
Herculaneum	A Roman town on the Bay of Naples that was buried and destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.
Histories	A historical work by Tacitus that examined the lives of emperors and the history of the Roman Empire in the first century CE.
historiography	The writing of history; the study and interpretation of historical events and sources in Latin literature.
imagery	Vivid descriptive language that appeals to the senses and creates mental pictures in the reader's mind.
implied meaning	The meaning suggested or understood indirectly from a text, rather than stated explicitly.
indicative verb	A verb form that expresses facts, statements, or questions in a straightforward manner.
inferences	Conclusions drawn from evidence and reasoning based on textual clues rather than explicit statements.
infinitive	A verbal form that functions as the predicate verb in an indirect statement or as a noun.
literal translation	A translation that closely adheres to the original text's word order, grammar, and structure rather than conveying meaning in natural target language phrasing.
locative case	A Latin grammatical case used to indicate location, translated as 'at' or 'in,' primarily used with names of cities and small towns.
metaphor	A rhetorical figure in which an implied comparison is achieved through figurative use of words, where words are used in an analogous rather than literal sense.
Misenum	A location at the northern end of the Bay of Naples where the Roman navy was stationed and where Pliny the Elder served as admiral.
Mt. Vesuvius	A volcano located near the center of the Bay of Naples that erupted in 79 CE, destroying the Roman towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, and Stabiae.
Natural History	A comprehensive work written by Pliny the Elder that served as a model for the modern encyclopedia and is the largest single surviving work from the Roman Empire.
ne	A Latin conjunction used to introduce negative purpose clauses with subjunctive verbs.
Oplontis	A Roman town on the Bay of Naples that was buried and destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.
oratory	The art of formal public speaking and rhetoric; in Latin literature, speeches and rhetorical compositions designed to persuade or move an audience.
parallel structure	The repetition of phrases, clauses, or sentences in similar grammatical forms to create balance, emphasis, or establish relationships between ideas.
Pliny the Elder	A Roman admiral, author, and scholar (c. 23-79 CE) who was Pliny the Younger's maternal uncle and wrote the Natural History, a comprehensive work that served as a model for the modern encyclopedia.
Pliny the Younger	A Roman lawyer, magistrate, and letter writer (61-c. 113 CE) who served under Emperor Trajan and whose letters provide insight into Roman life and administration in the first century CE.
Pompeii	A Roman town on the Bay of Naples that was buried and destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.
purpose clause	A subordinate clause introduced by ut or ne with a subjunctive verb that expresses the purpose or intention of the main clause action.
references	Direct mentions or citations of specific people, places, events, or concepts in a text.
repetition	The deliberate reuse of words, phrases, or grammatical structures in a text to create emphasis, rhythm, or stylistic effect.
result clause	A subordinate clause introduced by ut with a subjunctive verb that expresses the consequence or result of an action in the main clause.
rhetorical figure	A device of language used to create specific effects and enhance meaning in writing or speech.
Roman social norms	The established customs, behaviors, and social expectations that governed interactions and relationships in Roman society.
simile	A rhetorical figure that makes an explicit comparison between two unlike things, typically using 'like' or 'as'.
Stabiae	A Roman town south of Mt. Vesuvius that was in the direct path of ash and cinder from the 79 CE eruption and is mentioned in Pliny's letters.
stylistic device	A technique or literary tool used by an author to create a particular effect or enhance the meaning and impact of a text.
subjunctive mood	A verb mood used in Latin to express wishes, doubts, conditions, and in dependent clauses such as indirect questions.
Tacitus	A Roman historian (c. 56-c. 120 CE) best known for his Annals and Histories, which examined the lives of emperors and the history of the Roman Empire in the first century CE.
tension	A state of suspense, anxiety, or emotional strain created through literary techniques to engage the reader and heighten dramatic effect.
tragedy	A dramatic genre depicting serious events and the downfall of a protagonist, typically involving noble characters and evoking pity and fear.
ut	A Latin conjunction that can introduce clauses with indicative verbs (translated 'like,' 'as,' 'when') or subjunctive verbs (showing result or purpose).
verb	Words that express actions, states, or conditions and are central to Latin sentence structure.
verbals	Non-finite verb forms in Latin (such as infinitives, participles, and gerunds) that function as other parts of speech while retaining verbal characteristics.

2.2 Caesar, Gallic War, Book 6, Chapters 13–20

Term	Definition
antecedent	The noun that a relative pronoun refers back to and provides more information about.
Bay of Naples	A body of water on the west coast of the Italian peninsula where Mt. Vesuvius is located and where the Roman navy was stationed at Misenum.
clients	Individuals in Roman society who were dependent on and owed loyalty to a patron, often including formerly enslaved people after manumission.
comparative adjectives	Adjectives that show a comparison between two things, typically translated as '___er,' 'more ___,' or 'rather ___' in English.
contextual information	Background details about the historical, cultural, social, or biographical circumstances surrounding a text that help clarify its meaning and intent.
demonstrative pronoun	A pronoun used to point out or identify a specific person or thing, translated as 'this,' 'that,' 'these,' or 'those.'
deponent verbs	Latin verbs that have passive forms but are translated into English with active meanings.
gerund	A noun formed from a verb in Latin, used to express an action as a noun (e.g., bellandi: of waging war).
gerundive	An adjective formed from a verb in Latin that modifies a noun and expresses necessity or purpose (e.g., ad eas res conficiendas: for preparing these things).
Herculaneum	A Roman town on the Bay of Naples that was buried and destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.
indirect statement	A grammatical construction introduced by a verb of speaking, thinking, or feeling, consisting of an accusative subject and an infinitive verb.
interpretation	The process of determining the meaning and significance of a Latin text based on careful analysis of language, context, and literary elements.
manumission	The legal process by which an enslaved person in Rome was freed and typically became a client of their former master.
Misenum	A location at the northern end of the Bay of Naples where the Roman navy was stationed and where Pliny the Elder served as admiral.
Mt. Vesuvius	A volcano located near the center of the Bay of Naples that erupted in 79 CE, destroying the Roman towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, and Stabiae.
Oplontis	A Roman town on the Bay of Naples that was buried and destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.
Pompeii	A Roman town on the Bay of Naples that was buried and destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.
references and allusions	Indirect mentions of or indirect references to influential people, literary works, and historical events within a text.
relative clauses	Subordinate clauses introduced by a relative pronoun that provide additional information about a noun in the main clause.
relative pronoun	A pronoun (such as qui, quae, quod) that introduces a relative clause and refers back to a noun (its antecedent) in the main clause.
Roman citizenship	Legal status in ancient Rome that granted free male citizens specific rights and protections, including the right to legal trial, voting rights, and eligibility for civic office.
Roman social standing	A person's social position in Roman society, which could be influenced by family background, wealth, professional accomplishments, and political power and connections.
Stabiae	A Roman town south of Mt. Vesuvius that was in the direct path of ash and cinder from the 79 CE eruption and is mentioned in Pliny's letters.
stylistic information	Literary techniques and devices (such as word choice, sentence structure, imagery, and tone) that an author uses to create meaning and effect in a text.
superlative adjectives	Adjectives that show the highest degree of a quality, typically translated as '___est' or 'very ___' in English.
verbals	Non-finite verb forms in Latin (such as infinitives, participles, and gerunds) that function as other parts of speech while retaining verbal characteristics.

👻Unit 3 – Required – Pliny's Letters: Ghosts and Apparitions; Letters to Trajan

Term	Definition
Roman literature	The body of written works produced by Roman authors, including various genres such as epistles, poetry, and prose.

3.1 Book II

Term	Definition
-ne	A Latin suffix placed on the first or most important word of a sentence to indicate that a question is being asked.
ablative case	A Latin grammatical case with multiple functions, including showing the means, agent, manner, time, place, or separation in a sentence.
accusative case	A Latin grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a verb and, without a preposition, to indicate direction or destination ('place to where').
adjective	Words that modify nouns and must agree with them in case, number, and gender in Latin.
adverb	Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs to describe how, when, where, or to what extent an action occurs.
conditions	Grammatical structures in Latin that express hypothetical or conditional situations, typically introduced by si, nisi, or ni.
conjunction	Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses together in a sentence.
indicative mood	The mood of verbs used to express facts, statements, and questions; includes six tenses: present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect.
interrogative words	Question words in Latin used to introduce questions, such as quis (who), quid (what), and ubi (where).
locative case	A Latin grammatical case used to indicate location, translated as 'at' or 'in,' primarily used with names of cities and small towns.
ni	A Latin conjunction meaning 'not' used to introduce conditional clauses.
nisi	A Latin conjunction meaning 'if not' or 'unless' used to introduce conditional clauses.
particle	Small words in Latin that modify or connect other words, including adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions.
preposition	Words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence, often indicating location, direction, or time.
si	A Latin conjunction meaning 'if' used to introduce conditional clauses.
subjunctive mood	A verb mood used in Latin to express wishes, doubts, conditions, and in dependent clauses such as indirect questions.
verb	Words that express actions, states, or conditions and are central to Latin sentence structure.
verbals	Non-finite verb forms in Latin (such as infinitives, participles, and gerunds) that function as other parts of speech while retaining verbal characteristics.

3.2 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 2, Lines 201–249

Term	Definition
ablative case	A Latin grammatical case with multiple functions, including showing the means, agent, manner, time, place, or separation in a sentence.
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
clients	Individuals in Roman society who were dependent on and owed loyalty to a patron, often including formerly enslaved people after manumission.
Domitian	Roman emperor from 81 to 96 CE and the last member of the Flavian dynasty, known for transferring government functions to the imperial court and diminishing Senate power.
enslaved people	Individuals held as property under Roman law with limited legal rights, often performing manual labor, domestic services, or skilled work.
figurative language	Language that uses figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, personification, and symbolism to convey meaning beyond the literal sense of words.
Flavian dynasty	A Roman imperial dynasty consisting of Domitian and his father and brother, who all ruled as emperors.
future perfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action that will be completed before another future action, translated as 'will have _ed.'
future tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action that will happen, translated as 'will _.'
imperfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing a past action in progress or habitual action, translated as 'was/were _ing' or 'used to _.'
implied meaning	The meaning suggested or understood indirectly from a text, rather than stated explicitly.
indicative mood	The mood of verbs used to express facts, statements, and questions; includes six tenses: present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect.
inferences	Conclusions drawn from evidence and reasoning based on textual clues rather than explicit statements.
interpretation	The process of determining the meaning and significance of a Latin text based on careful analysis of language, context, and literary elements.
manumission	The legal process by which an enslaved person in Rome was freed and typically became a client of their former master.
ne	A Latin conjunction used to introduce negative purpose clauses with subjunctive verbs.
noun	Words that name persons, places, things, or ideas and function as subjects, objects, or complements in Latin sentences.
perfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing a completed past action, translated as '_ed,' 'has/have _ed,' or 'did _.'
Pliny the Younger	A Roman lawyer, magistrate, and letter writer (61-c. 113 CE) who served under Emperor Trajan and whose letters provide insight into Roman life and administration in the first century CE.
pluperfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action completed before another past action, translated as 'had _ed.'
present tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action happening now or habitually, translated as 'is/are _ing.'
purpose clause	A subordinate clause introduced by ut or ne with a subjunctive verb that expresses the purpose or intention of the main clause action.
references	Direct mentions or citations of specific people, places, events, or concepts in a text.
Roman citizenship	Legal status in ancient Rome that granted free male citizens specific rights and protections, including the right to legal trial, voting rights, and eligibility for civic office.
Roman social norms	The established customs, behaviors, and social expectations that governed interactions and relationships in Roman society.
stylistic information	Literary techniques and devices (such as word choice, sentence structure, imagery, and tone) that an author uses to create meaning and effect in a text.
subjunctive mood	A verb mood used in Latin to express wishes, doubts, conditions, and in dependent clauses such as indirect questions.
ut	A Latin conjunction that can introduce clauses with indicative verbs (translated 'like,' 'as,' 'when') or subjunctive verbs (showing result or purpose).
verb	Words that express actions, states, or conditions and are central to Latin sentence structure.
verbals	Non-finite verb forms in Latin (such as infinitives, participles, and gerunds) that function as other parts of speech while retaining verbal characteristics.

3.3 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 2, Lines 268–297

Term	Definition
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
Bithynia-Pontus	A Roman province located on the southern shore of the Black Sea (in modern-day Turkey) where Pliny served as governor from 110 to 113 CE.
clients	Individuals in Roman society who were dependent on and owed loyalty to a patron, often including formerly enslaved people after manumission.
Emperor Trajan	Roman emperor who ruled from 98 to 117 CE and expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent while overseeing major public building programs.
enslaved people	Individuals held as property under Roman law with limited legal rights, often performing manual labor, domestic services, or skilled work.
manumission	The legal process by which an enslaved person in Rome was freed and typically became a client of their former master.
patronage	A system of mutually beneficial relationships between individuals of different power and influence levels, central to Roman culture.
patrons	Wealthier and more powerful individuals who provided assistance such as legal defense and gifts to their clients in exchange for political support.
Pliny the Younger	A Roman lawyer, magistrate, and letter writer (61-c. 113 CE) who served under Emperor Trajan and whose letters provide insight into Roman life and administration in the first century CE.
political patronage	A patronage relationship based on political support and influence between individuals of different social status.
references	Direct mentions or citations of specific people, places, events, or concepts in a text.
Roman social norms	The established customs, behaviors, and social expectations that governed interactions and relationships in Roman society.

3.4 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 2, Lines 559–620

Term	Definition
ablative case	A Latin grammatical case with multiple functions, including showing the means, agent, manner, time, place, or separation in a sentence.
accusative case	A Latin grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a verb and, without a preposition, to indicate direction or destination ('place to where').
Aeneid	An epic poem by Virgil that tells the story of Aeneas and includes the character Camilla and her relationship with Diana.
Alexandria	A major city located in Egypt at the mouth of the Nile River that was part of the Roman Empire and is referenced in Pliny's letters.
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
Athens	An ancient Greek city that was part of the Roman Empire by the late first century CE and is referenced in Pliny's letters.
Augustus	The first emperor of Rome (27 BCE-14 CE), born Gaius Octavius, adopted heir of Julius Caesar who consolidated power and established a stable empire.
Bithynia-Pontus	A Roman province located on the southern shore of the Black Sea (in modern-day Turkey) where Pliny served as governor from 110 to 113 CE.
Carthage	An ancient city in northern Africa founded by Dido, which became a major Mediterranean power.
causa	A Latin noun meaning 'cause' or 'reason' that, when placed in the ablative case after a genitive noun, is translated as 'for the sake of.'
civic office	A position of authority or responsibility in Roman government that citizens had the right to seek and hold.
Emperor Trajan	Roman emperor who ruled from 98 to 117 CE and expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent while overseeing major public building programs.
genitive case	A Latin grammatical case used to show possession, descriptive properties, part of a whole, or a quasi-object of a noun implying action.
gratia	A Latin noun meaning 'favor' or 'grace' that, when placed in the ablative case after a genitive noun, is translated as 'for the sake of.'
Ilium	The rebuilt city of ancient Troy, restored by Augustus as part of the Roman Empire.
indirect questions	Clauses introduced by question words with verbs in the subjunctive mood that function as dependent clauses within a sentence.
indirect statement	A grammatical construction introduced by a verb of speaking, thinking, or feeling, consisting of an accusative subject and an infinitive verb.
infinitive	A verbal form that functions as the predicate verb in an indirect statement or as a noun.
legal trial	A formal judicial proceeding to which Roman citizens had the right to be subjected, ensuring legal protections and due process.
Pliny the Younger	A Roman lawyer, magistrate, and letter writer (61-c. 113 CE) who served under Emperor Trajan and whose letters provide insight into Roman life and administration in the first century CE.
references	Direct mentions or citations of specific people, places, events, or concepts in a text.
Roman citizenship	Legal status in ancient Rome that granted free male citizens specific rights and protections, including the right to legal trial, voting rights, and eligibility for civic office.
Roman Empire	The vast political and territorial dominion that encompassed the Mediterranean Basin and surrounding regions during antiquity.
Roman social norms	The established customs, behaviors, and social expectations that governed interactions and relationships in Roman society.
subjunctive mood	A verb mood used in Latin to express wishes, doubts, conditions, and in dependent clauses such as indirect questions.
verbals	Non-finite verb forms in Latin (such as infinitives, participles, and gerunds) that function as other parts of speech while retaining verbal characteristics.
Vergil	A Roman poet (70-19 BCE) who composed the Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid, works that had lasting influence on Western literature.
vocative case	A Latin grammatical case used to directly address a person or object in speech.

🏛️Unit 4 – Required – Vergil's Aeneid: Excerpts From Books 1 and 2

4.1 Book IV

Term	Definition
Actium	The naval battle in 31 BCE where Octavius defeated the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, establishing Octavius's sole power.
Aeneas	A legendary Trojan hero and son of Venus, presented in the Aeneid as the ancestor of Augustus and the founder of Rome.
Aeneid	An epic poem by Virgil that tells the story of Aeneas and includes the character Camilla and her relationship with Diana.
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
Apollo	The Roman god of music, medicine, prophecy, archery, and the sun, son of Jupiter.
Augustus	The first emperor of Rome (27 BCE-14 CE), born Gaius Octavius, adopted heir of Julius Caesar who consolidated power and established a stable empire.
Battle of Philippi	A military engagement in which the Second Triumvirate defeated the conspirators responsible for Julius Caesar's assassination.
Cleopatra	The Egyptian queen whose armies were defeated alongside Mark Antony at Actium in 31 BCE.
dactyl	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by two short syllables.
dactylic hexameter	A metrical pattern used in epic poetry consisting of six feet per line, typically composed of dactyls and spondees.
diphthong	A combination of two vowel sounds pronounced as a single unit.
divine ancestry	The concept that Augustus descended from Aeneas and Venus, establishing his preordained status as ruler of Rome.
Eclogues	A collection of pastoral poems composed by Vergil, also known as the Bucolics.
elision	The partial suppression of the end of a word when reading verse, occurring when a word ending in a vowel, vowel plus m, or diphthong is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, diphthong, or h.
epic poetry	A long narrative poem that typically recounts the deeds of heroes and is written in a formal, elevated style.
figurative language	Language that uses figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, personification, and symbolism to convey meaning beyond the literal sense of words.
foot	The basic repeating unit of meter in poetry, composed of a specific sequence of long and short syllables.
genre	A category or type of literary work with distinctive characteristics, conventions, and features.
Georgics	A didactic poem by Vergil about agriculture and rural life.
Greco-Roman mythology	The combined body of myths and legends from both Greek and Roman cultures, often shared or adapted between the two civilizations.
Helen	In Greek mythology, the queen of Sparta whose abduction by Paris triggered the Trojan War.
implied meaning	The meaning suggested or understood indirectly from a text, rather than stated explicitly.
in medias res	A narrative technique in which an epic poem begins in the middle of the action rather than at the beginning of the story.
inferences	Conclusions drawn from evidence and reasoning based on textual clues rather than explicit statements.
invocation to the muses	A formal appeal to the muses (goddesses of inspiration) at the beginning of an epic poem, requesting their aid in telling the story.
Julius Caesar	A Roman military and political leader who invaded Gaul and established a dictatorship (49-45 BCE) before his assassination in 44 BCE.
Juno	The queen of the Roman gods and mother of both Venus and Vulcan.
Jupiter	The king of the Roman gods and father of both Venus and Vulcan.
long syllable	A syllable that takes up more time in pronunciation, represented in metrical notation and forming part of metrical feet.
Marcus Lepidus	One of the three members of the Second Triumvirate alongside Octavius and Mark Antony.
Mark Antony	A Roman military leader and member of the Second Triumvirate who was defeated by Octavius at Actium in 31 BCE.
Mars	The Roman god of war and son of Jupiter.
Mercury	The Roman god of merchants and thieves who also served as messenger of the gods, son of Jupiter.
meter	The regular, predictable pattern of long and short syllables that forms the rhythmic structure of Latin poetry.
Minerva	The Roman goddess of handicrafts and war, daughter of Jupiter, equivalent to the Greek Athena.
narrative	The story or sequence of events in a literary work, which in epic poetry is often advanced by divine intervention.
Neptune	The Roman god of the seas and bodies of fresh water, son of Saturn.
Paris	A Trojan prince who judged the contest between three goddesses in the Judgement of Paris myth.
Pluto	The Roman god and ruler of the underworld, also called Dis Pater or Dis, son of Saturn.
polytheistic religion	A religious system based on the belief in and worship of multiple gods.
proem	A preface or prologue that introduces an epic poem.
propaganda	Information and messaging used by Augustus through art, literature, coinage, and architecture to promote his peaceful reign and stable empire.
references	Direct mentions or citations of specific people, places, events, or concepts in a text.
Roman Empire	The vast political and territorial dominion that encompassed the Mediterranean Basin and surrounding regions during antiquity.
Roman Republic	The political system of Rome before the establishment of the empire, which transitioned to imperial rule through civil wars.
Saturn	The Roman god of time, wealth, and renewal, father of Jupiter, who ruled over a mythical golden age of abundance and peace.
Second Triumvirate	The political alliance of Octavius, Marcus Lepidus, and Mark Antony that ruled Rome and eventually led to civil war.
short syllable	A syllable that takes up less time in pronunciation, represented in metrical notation and forming part of metrical feet.
spondee	A metrical foot consisting of two long syllables.
the Fates	Three goddesses in Roman mythology who controlled human destiny, determining how long people would live, what they would accomplish, and what they would suffer.
the Judgement of Paris	A Greek myth in which the Trojan prince Paris judged a beauty contest between Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, choosing Aphrodite as the fairest.
trochee	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by one short syllable.
Venus	The Roman goddess of love, beauty, sexual desire, and victory; mother of Aeneas in the Aeneid.
Vergil	A Roman poet (70-19 BCE) who composed the Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid, works that had lasting influence on Western literature.

4.2 Book IV

Term	Definition
accusative case	A Latin grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a verb and, without a preposition, to indicate direction or destination ('place to where').
adjective	Words that modify nouns and must agree with them in case, number, and gender in Latin.
Aeneas	A legendary Trojan hero and son of Venus, presented in the Aeneid as the ancestor of Augustus and the founder of Rome.
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, sentences, or lines, used to emphasize ideas and create momentum.
Carthage	An ancient city in northern Africa founded by Dido, which became a major Mediterranean power.
case	The grammatical form of a Latin noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates its function in a sentence (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, or vocative).
chiasmus	A rhetorical figure in which two corresponding pairs are arranged in inverted order (a-b-b-a) to create emphasis and draw attention to a particular point.
dative case	A grammatical case used for nouns that indicate the person to whom, for whom, or to whose advantage an action is being done, commonly used with verbs of speaking, giving, and showing.
declensions	The system of noun and adjective endings in Latin that indicate gender, number, and case; there are five declensions for nouns and three for adjectives.
Dido	The legendary founder of Carthage, also known as Elissa, who was originally queen of Tyre and fled after her husband Sychaeus was murdered by her brother Pygmalion.
direct object	The noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb in a sentence.
future perfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action that will be completed before another future action, translated as 'will have _ed.'
future tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action that will happen, translated as 'will _.'
Gaetulians	An ancient people of northern Africa whose leader Iarbas encountered Dido when she arrived to found Carthage.
gender	The grammatical classification of Latin nouns, adjectives, and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter.
Greco-Roman mythology	The combined body of myths and legends from both Greek and Roman cultures, often shared or adapted between the two civilizations.
Iarbas	The leader of the Gaetulians who offered Dido land in northern Africa and later proposed marriage to her, which she rejected.
imperfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing a past action in progress or habitual action, translated as 'was/were _ing' or 'used to _.'
indicative mood	The mood of verbs used to express facts, statements, and questions; includes six tenses: present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect.
Juno	The queen of the Roman gods and mother of both Venus and Vulcan.
Jupiter	The king of the Roman gods and father of both Venus and Vulcan.
metaphor	A rhetorical figure in which an implied comparison is achieved through figurative use of words, where words are used in an analogous rather than literal sense.
noun	Words that name persons, places, things, or ideas and function as subjects, objects, or complements in Latin sentences.
number	The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.
perfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing a completed past action, translated as '_ed,' 'has/have _ed,' or 'did _.'
pluperfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action completed before another past action, translated as 'had _ed.'
present tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action happening now or habitually, translated as 'is/are _ing.'
pronoun	Words that replace or refer to nouns and have gender, number, and case forms in Latin.
Punic Wars	A series of conflicts fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BCE that resulted in Roman expansion and the destruction of Carthage.
Pygmalion	The brother of Dido who murdered her husband Sychaeus for his wealth, forcing Dido to flee Tyre.
references	Direct mentions or citations of specific people, places, events, or concepts in a text.
repetition	The deliberate reuse of words, phrases, or grammatical structures in a text to create emphasis, rhythm, or stylistic effect.
rhetorical figure	A device of language used to create specific effects and enhance meaning in writing or speech.
simile	A rhetorical figure that makes an explicit comparison between two unlike things, typically using 'like' or 'as'.
stem	The base form of a word to which endings are added to indicate grammatical information such as case, number, and degree.
stylistic device	A technique or literary tool used by an author to create a particular effect or enhance the meaning and impact of a text.
substantive	An adjective used as a noun to represent an implied noun, functioning independently in a sentence.
superlative adjectives	Adjectives that show the highest degree of a quality, typically translated as '___est' or 'very ___' in English.
Sychaeus	The husband of Dido who was murdered by her brother Pygmalion for his wealth.
Tyre	An ancient Phoenician city (in present-day Lebanon) where Dido was originally queen before fleeing to Africa.
Venus	The Roman goddess of love, beauty, sexual desire, and victory; mother of Aeneas in the Aeneid.
verb	Words that express actions, states, or conditions and are central to Latin sentence structure.
verbals	Non-finite verb forms in Latin (such as infinitives, participles, and gerunds) that function as other parts of speech while retaining verbal characteristics.
Vulcan	The Roman god of fire, metalworking, and the forge; husband of Venus.
word order	The arrangement and sequence of words in a Latin sentence, which can be manipulated as a stylistic device to create emphasis or convey meaning.

4.3 Book IV

Term	Definition
Aeneid	An epic poem by Virgil that tells the story of Aeneas and includes the character Camilla and her relationship with Diana.
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
animal sacrifice	A religious ritual in which Romans offered animals to the gods to seek their favor, protection, or approval.
case	The grammatical form of a Latin noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates its function in a sentence (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, or vocative).
condition	A grammatical structure in Latin introduced by si ('if'), nisi ('if not'), or ni ('not') that expresses a hypothetical or conditional situation.
conjugation	A group or class of verbs that follow the same pattern of endings and modifications.
dactyl	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by two short syllables.
dactylic hexameter	A metrical pattern used in epic poetry consisting of six feet per line, typically composed of dactyls and spondees.
dative case	A grammatical case used for nouns that indicate the person to whom, for whom, or to whose advantage an action is being done, commonly used with verbs of speaking, giving, and showing.
dative of purpose	A Latin construction using the dative case to express the intended purpose or function of something.
dative of reference	A Latin construction using the dative case to indicate the person or thing with respect to which something is true or relevant.
deponent verb	A Latin verb that has passive forms but is translated into English with active meanings.
double dative construction	A Latin grammatical structure using two dative cases together, typically combining a dative of reference with a dative of purpose.
dreams	Nocturnal visions that Romans believed could convey messages from the gods about future events.
ending	The suffix attached to a verb stem that indicates person, number, tense, voice, and mood.
enjambment	A poetic device in which the final word of a phrase, clause, or sentence is delayed to the beginning of the following line to create suspense or emphasis.
entrails	The internal organs of sacrificed animals that Romans examined for signs of divine approval or disapproval.
epic poetry	A long narrative poem that typically recounts the deeds of heroes and is written in a formal, elevated style.
figurative language	Language that uses figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, personification, and symbolism to convey meaning beyond the literal sense of words.
foot	The basic repeating unit of meter in poetry, composed of a specific sequence of long and short syllables.
gender	The grammatical classification of Latin nouns, adjectives, and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter.
Greco-Roman mythology	The combined body of myths and legends from both Greek and Roman cultures, often shared or adapted between the two civilizations.
Helen	In Greek mythology, the queen of Sparta whose abduction by Paris triggered the Trojan War.
household gods	Roman domestic deities (such as the Lares and Penates) to whom Romans prayed and made offerings at shrines within their homes.
implied meaning	The meaning suggested or understood indirectly from a text, rather than stated explicitly.
indicative mood	The mood of verbs used to express facts, statements, and questions; includes six tenses: present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect.
inferences	Conclusions drawn from evidence and reasoning based on textual clues rather than explicit statements.
interlocking word order	A Latin stylistic device involving interlocking word order with elements placed in an a-b-a-b format to create emphasis or surprise.
interpretation	The process of determining the meaning and significance of a Latin text based on careful analysis of language, context, and literary elements.
irregular verb	A verb that does not follow the expected patterns of its conjugation, such as sum (to be).
meter	The regular, predictable pattern of long and short syllables that forms the rhythmic structure of Latin poetry.
mood	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates the mode or manner of the action, such as indicative (factual), subjunctive (hypothetical), or imperative (command).
number	The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.
Paris of Troy	A Trojan prince in Greek mythology who abducted Helen, the wife of the Spartan king, causing the Trojan War.
participle	A verbal adjective that modifies nouns, agrees with them in case, number, and gender, and has tense and voice like a verb.
person	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates whether the subject is first person (I/we), second person (you), or third person (he/she/it/they).
portents	Signs or omens, often unusual natural phenomena, believed by Romans to indicate divine will or future events.
principal parts	The key forms of a verb (typically infinitive, perfect, and supine) from which all other forms can be derived.
spondee	A metrical foot consisting of two long syllables.
stem	The base form of a word to which endings are added to indicate grammatical information such as case, number, and degree.
stylistic device	A technique or literary tool used by an author to create a particular effect or enhance the meaning and impact of a text.
stylistic information	Literary techniques and devices (such as word choice, sentence structure, imagery, and tone) that an author uses to create meaning and effect in a text.
subjunctive mood	A verb mood used in Latin to express wishes, doubts, conditions, and in dependent clauses such as indirect questions.
sum, esse	The irregular Latin verb meaning 'to be,' whose forms may sometimes be omitted and must be inferred from context.
tense	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating the time of an action (present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future, or future perfect).
trochee	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by one short syllable.
Trojan Horse	A giant wooden horse used as a deceptive gift by the Greeks to enter the city of Troy, containing Greek soldiers who helped end the siege.
Trojan War	The legendary ten-year conflict between the Greeks and the city of Troy, originating from Paris's abduction of Helen.
Ulysses	The Roman name for the Greek hero Odysseus, credited with devising the strategy of the Trojan Horse.
verb	Words that express actions, states, or conditions and are central to Latin sentence structure.
verbal	A word form derived from a verb that functions as another part of speech, such as a participle, gerund, or infinitive.
voice	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating whether the subject performs the action (active voice) or receives the action (passive voice).
word order	The arrangement and sequence of words in a Latin sentence, which can be manipulated as a stylistic device to create emphasis or convey meaning.

⚔️Unit 5 – Required – Vergil's Aeneid: Excerpts From Books 4, 6, 7, 11, and 12

Term	Definition
augury	The Roman practice of examining the entrails of sacrificed animals to interpret signs of divine approval or disapproval.
Camilla	A warrior figure in Virgil's Aeneid who is protected by the goddess Diana.
cum	A Latin conjunction that can mean 'when,' 'since,' or 'although' depending on context and the mood of the verb it introduces.
Diana	The Roman goddess of wild animals, the hunt, and fertility, who in the Aeneid shows concern for the warrior Camilla.
imperative mood	The mood of a verb used to express commands or direct requests.
Latin adjectives	Words in Latin that modify nouns to describe their qualities, attributes, or characteristics, and must agree with the nouns they modify in case, number, and gender.

5.1 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 4 Lines 160-218

Term	Definition
ablative case	A Latin grammatical case with multiple functions, including showing the means, agent, manner, time, place, or separation in a sentence.
adjective	Words that modify nouns and must agree with them in case, number, and gender in Latin.
case	The grammatical form of a Latin noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates its function in a sentence (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, or vocative).
causa	A Latin noun meaning 'cause' or 'reason' that, when placed in the ablative case after a genitive noun, is translated as 'for the sake of.'
chiasmus	A rhetorical figure in which two corresponding pairs are arranged in inverted order (a-b-b-a) to create emphasis and draw attention to a particular point.
dactyls	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by two short syllables (– ∪ ∪).
declensions	The system of noun and adjective endings in Latin that indicate gender, number, and case; there are five declensions for nouns and three for adjectives.
epic poetry	A long narrative poem that typically recounts the deeds of heroes and is written in a formal, elevated style.
feet	The basic repeating units of meter in poetry, each composed of a specific pattern of long and short syllables.
gender	The grammatical classification of Latin nouns, adjectives, and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter.
genitive case	A Latin grammatical case used to show possession, descriptive properties, part of a whole, or a quasi-object of a noun implying action.
genre	A category or type of literary work with distinctive characteristics, conventions, and features.
gerund	A noun formed from a verb in Latin, used to express an action as a noun (e.g., bellandi: of waging war).
gerundive	An adjective formed from a verb in Latin that modifies a noun and expresses necessity or purpose (e.g., ad eas res conficiendas: for preparing these things).
gods	Divine beings in epic poetry who intervene in human affairs and influence the progression of events in the narrative.
gratia	A Latin noun meaning 'favor' or 'grace' that, when placed in the ablative case after a genitive noun, is translated as 'for the sake of.'
infinitive	A verbal form that functions as the predicate verb in an indirect statement or as a noun.
meter	The regular, predictable pattern of long and short syllables that forms the rhythmic structure of Latin poetry.
narrative	The story or sequence of events in a literary work, which in epic poetry is often advanced by divine intervention.
number	The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.
personified forces of nature	Natural elements or abstract concepts given human characteristics and agency in literary works, often represented as divine beings in epic poetry.
pronoun	Words that replace or refer to nouns and have gender, number, and case forms in Latin.
rhetorical figure	A device of language used to create specific effects and enhance meaning in writing or speech.
spondees	A metrical foot consisting of two long syllables (– –).
stylistic device	A technique or literary tool used by an author to create a particular effect or enhance the meaning and impact of a text.
substantively	The use of an adjective as a noun, where the adjective refers to an implied noun rather than an explicitly stated one.
supine	A fourth declension verbal noun ending in -um or -u that functions as a noun in Latin sentences.
syllables	The individual units of sound that make up words and are classified as long or short in Latin poetry.
trochees	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by one short syllable, commonly used in epic poetry.
verbal	A word form derived from a verb that functions as another part of speech, such as a participle, gerund, or infinitive.
word order	The arrangement and sequence of words in a Latin sentence, which can be manipulated as a stylistic device to create emphasis or convey meaning.

5.2 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 4 Lines 259-295

Term	Definition
ablative case	A Latin grammatical case with multiple functions, including showing the means, agent, manner, time, place, or separation in a sentence.
Carthage	An ancient city in northern Africa founded by Dido, which became a major Mediterranean power.
condition	A grammatical structure in Latin introduced by si ('if'), nisi ('if not'), or ni ('not') that expresses a hypothetical or conditional situation.
Dido	The legendary founder of Carthage, also known as Elissa, who was originally queen of Tyre and fled after her husband Sychaeus was murdered by her brother Pygmalion.
Fates	Three goddesses in Greco-Roman mythology who controlled the destinies of humans, determining their lifespan, accomplishments, and sufferings.
figurative language	Language that uses figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, personification, and symbolism to convey meaning beyond the literal sense of words.
future perfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action that will be completed before another future action, translated as 'will have _ed.'
future tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action that will happen, translated as 'will _.'
Gaetulians	An ancient people of northern Africa whose leader Iarbas encountered Dido when she arrived to found Carthage.
genitive case	A Latin grammatical case used to show possession, descriptive properties, part of a whole, or a quasi-object of a noun implying action.
Iarbas	The leader of the Gaetulians who offered Dido land in northern Africa and later proposed marriage to her, which she rejected.
imperfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing a past action in progress or habitual action, translated as 'was/were _ing' or 'used to _.'
implied meaning	The meaning suggested or understood indirectly from a text, rather than stated explicitly.
indicative mood	The mood of verbs used to express facts, statements, and questions; includes six tenses: present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect.
inferences	Conclusions drawn from evidence and reasoning based on textual clues rather than explicit statements.
perfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing a completed past action, translated as '_ed,' 'has/have _ed,' or 'did _.'
pietas	A Roman virtue encompassing reverence for the gods, loyalty to one's country, and devotion to family members, particularly parents and children.
pius	An adjective describing someone who demonstrates pietas through religious devotion, patriotic duty, and familial loyalty.
pluperfect tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action completed before another past action, translated as 'had _ed.'
possessor	In Latin grammar, the person or entity that owns or possesses something, typically expressed using the genitive case.
present tense	A verb tense in the indicative mood expressing an action happening now or habitually, translated as 'is/are _ing.'
Pygmalion	The brother of Dido who murdered her husband Sychaeus for his wealth, forcing Dido to flee Tyre.
Roman social norms	The established customs, behaviors, and social expectations that governed interactions and relationships in Roman society.
subjunctive mood	A verb mood used in Latin to express wishes, doubts, conditions, and in dependent clauses such as indirect questions.
Sychaeus	The husband of Dido who was murdered by her brother Pygmalion for his wealth.
Tyre	An ancient Phoenician city (in present-day Lebanon) where Dido was originally queen before fleeing to Africa.
verbals	Non-finite verb forms in Latin (such as infinitives, participles, and gerunds) that function as other parts of speech while retaining verbal characteristics.

5.3 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 4 Lines 296-361

Term	Definition
Actium	The naval battle in 31 BCE where Octavius defeated the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, establishing Octavius's sole power.
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
Augustus	The first emperor of Rome (27 BCE-14 CE), born Gaius Octavius, adopted heir of Julius Caesar who consolidated power and established a stable empire.
Carthage	An ancient city in northern Africa founded by Dido, which became a major Mediterranean power.
Cleopatra	The Egyptian queen whose armies were defeated alongside Mark Antony at Actium in 31 BCE.
courage	Bravery and fortitude in facing danger or adversity, highly valued in Roman culture.
dactyl	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by two short syllables.
dactylic hexameter	A metrical pattern used in epic poetry consisting of six feet per line, typically composed of dactyls and spondees.
Dido	The legendary founder of Carthage, also known as Elissa, who was originally queen of Tyre and fled after her husband Sychaeus was murdered by her brother Pygmalion.
divine interventions	Actions by gods or supernatural forces that help or hinder the hero's progress in an epic narrative.
epic poetry	A long narrative poem that typically recounts the deeds of heroes and is written in a formal, elevated style.
ethical behavior	Conduct guided by principles of right and wrong, reflecting moral values.
everyday life	The ordinary activities, routines, and domestic experiences of people in a particular historical period or society.
feet	The basic repeating units of meter in poetry, each composed of a specific pattern of long and short syllables.
frugality	Careful management of resources and avoidance of excess, an important Roman virtue.
Gaetulians	An ancient people of northern Africa whose leader Iarbas encountered Dido when she arrived to found Carthage.
genre	A category or type of literary work with distinctive characteristics, conventions, and features.
Greco-Roman mythology	The combined body of myths and legends from both Greek and Roman cultures, often shared or adapted between the two civilizations.
hard work	Diligent effort and labor, valued as a fundamental Roman principle.
honesty	Truthfulness and integrity in dealings with others, a core Roman value.
Iarbas	The leader of the Gaetulians who offered Dido land in northern Africa and later proposed marriage to her, which she rejected.
Mark Antony	A Roman military leader and member of the Second Triumvirate who was defeated by Octavius at Actium in 31 BCE.
mercy	Compassion and leniency shown toward others, valued as a virtue in Roman society.
metaphor	A rhetorical figure in which an implied comparison is achieved through figurative use of words, where words are used in an analogous rather than literal sense.
meter	The regular, predictable pattern of long and short syllables that forms the rhythmic structure of Latin poetry.
moral discernment	The ability to distinguish between right and wrong and make ethical judgments.
Pygmalion	The brother of Dido who murdered her husband Sychaeus for his wealth, forcing Dido to flee Tyre.
quest	The central journey or mission undertaken by the hero in an epic poem.
references	Direct mentions or citations of specific people, places, events, or concepts in a text.
responsibility	The obligation to fulfill one's duties and be accountable for one's actions, a key Roman value.
rhetorical figure	A device of language used to create specific effects and enhance meaning in writing or speech.
Roman character	The distinctive qualities and values that defined Roman civilization and were reflected in their writings and art.
Roman social norms	The established customs, behaviors, and social expectations that governed interactions and relationships in Roman society.
Second Triumvirate	The political alliance of Octavius, Marcus Lepidus, and Mark Antony that ruled Rome and eventually led to civil war.
self-control	The ability to regulate one's emotions and behavior according to reason, a Roman virtue.
simile	A rhetorical figure that makes an explicit comparison between two unlike things, typically using 'like' or 'as'.
spondee	A metrical foot consisting of two long syllables.
stylistic device	A technique or literary tool used by an author to create a particular effect or enhance the meaning and impact of a text.
Sychaeus	The husband of Dido who was murdered by her brother Pygmalion for his wealth.
trochee	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by one short syllable.
Tyre	An ancient Phoenician city (in present-day Lebanon) where Dido was originally queen before fleeing to Africa.
underworld	In classical literature, the realm of the dead that epic heroes must sometimes visit or descend to in order to complete their quest.

5.4 Vergil, Aeneid, Book 4 Lines 659-705

Term	Definition
ablative case	A Latin grammatical case with multiple functions, including showing the means, agent, manner, time, place, or separation in a sentence.
adjective	Words that modify nouns and must agree with them in case, number, and gender in Latin.
antecedent	The noun that a relative pronoun refers back to and provides more information about.
comparative adjectives	Adjectives that show a comparison between two things, typically translated as '___er,' 'more ___,' or 'rather ___' in English.
figurative language	Language that uses figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, personification, and symbolism to convey meaning beyond the literal sense of words.
implied meaning	The meaning suggested or understood indirectly from a text, rather than stated explicitly.
indirect questions	Clauses introduced by question words with verbs in the subjunctive mood that function as dependent clauses within a sentence.
inferences	Conclusions drawn from evidence and reasoning based on textual clues rather than explicit statements.
pronoun	Words that replace or refer to nouns and have gender, number, and case forms in Latin.
subjunctive mood	A verb mood used in Latin to express wishes, doubts, conditions, and in dependent clauses such as indirect questions.
superlative adjectives	Adjectives that show the highest degree of a quality, typically translated as '___est' or 'very ___' in English.
verbals	Non-finite verb forms in Latin (such as infinitives, participles, and gerunds) that function as other parts of speech while retaining verbal characteristics.

🎭Unit 6 – Suggested Practice – Latin Poetry

Term	Definition
cento	A literary work composed entirely of verses or passages from other authors, often rearranged to create new meaning.

Term	Definition
historical events	Significant occurrences in history that are referenced or alluded to in a text.
influential people	Significant historical or literary figures whose actions or ideas shaped events or culture.
literary works	Written compositions such as poems, plays, or prose that are referenced or alluded to in a text.

Term	Definition
Christian themes	Religious subjects and ideas based on Christian doctrine and theology that appear in literary works.
classical forms	Literary structures and poetic techniques inherited from ancient Roman and Greek literature.
Medieval Latin poetry	Latin poetry composed during the Middle Ages that often blended classical literary forms with Christian religious themes.

Term	Definition
carmina epigraphica	Latin inscriptional poems, typically found on monuments, tombs, or public structures, often commemorating individuals or events.

Term	Definition
Latin literature	Written works composed in the Latin language, including poetry, prose, and dramatic texts from ancient Rome and the Roman world.
Latin texts	Written works originally composed in Latin, which students analyze and interpret in the AP Latin course.
textual evidence	Specific passages, phrases, or details from a text that support an interpretation or argument about the text's meaning.

Term	Definition
exile	Forced banishment from one's homeland, as experienced by Ovid when sent to Tomis.
Ovid	Roman poet (43 BCE-17 CE) known for works including the Metamorphoses and Tristia, exiled by Augustus.
Tomis	A remote settlement on the Black Sea to which Ovid was exiled by Augustus.
Tristia	A collection of elegiac poems written by Ovid during his exile, expressing his suffering and longing for Rome.

Term	Definition
dactylic pentameter	A metrical line consisting of five dactylic feet, where each dactyl contains one long syllable followed by two short syllables.
elegiac couplet	A pair of lines consisting of a dactylic hexameter followed by a dactylic pentameter, commonly used in Latin elegiac poetry.

Term	Definition
Latin texts	Written works originally composed in Latin, which students analyze and interpret in the AP Latin course.

Term	Definition
features	Distinctive characteristics or elements that define and identify a particular literary genre or text.

Term	Definition
features	Distinctive characteristics or elements that define and identify a particular literary genre or text.

Term	Definition
features	Distinctive characteristics or elements that define and identify a particular literary genre or text.

Term	Definition
features	Distinctive characteristics or elements that define and identify a particular literary genre or text.

Term	Definition
pastoral poetry	A literary genre that idealizes and celebrates rural life, nature, and the lives of shepherds.

Term	Definition
ut clause	A subordinate clause introduced by ut that expresses the result or purpose of an action, typically containing a verb in the subjunctive mood.

Term	Definition
Neo-Latin poetry	Poetry written in Latin during the Renaissance and early modern periods, reviving classical Latin literary forms and styles.

Term	Definition
epitaphs	Inscriptions or verses composed to commemorate a deceased person, typically found on tombstones or monuments.
inscriptions	Written texts carved, engraved, or written on a surface such as stone, metal, or other materials, often serving commemorative or informational purposes.

Term	Definition
Christian Latin poetry	Poetry composed in Latin that reflects Christian themes, theology, and religious perspectives.

6.1 Caesar, Gallic War, Book 5, Part I, Chapters 24-26

Term	Definition
ancient novels	Extended prose narratives from antiquity that tell fictional stories, often featuring adventure, romance, or complex plots.
asyndeton	The omission of conjunctions between grammatical units of the same type that creates a hurried effect within a list.
comedy	A dramatic genre intended to entertain through humor, often depicting ordinary characters and situations with a lighthearted or satirical tone.
conjunction	Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses together in a sentence.
dialogues	A literary form presenting a conversation between two or more characters, often used to explore philosophical or rhetorical ideas.
didactic poetry	Poetry written with the primary purpose of instructing or teaching the reader about a subject, often philosophical or technical in nature.
ending	The suffix attached to a verb stem that indicates person, number, tense, voice, and mood.
epigrams	Brief, pointed poems or inscriptions, often witty or satirical in nature, typically expressing a single thought or observation.
genre	A category or type of literary work with distinctive characteristics, conventions, and features.
historiography	The writing of history; the study and interpretation of historical events and sources in Latin literature.
indicative	The mood of a verb used to express facts, statements, or questions about reality.
love poems	Lyric poetry focused on themes of romantic love, desire, and relationships, a significant genre in Latin literature.
mood	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates the mode or manner of the action, such as indicative (factual), subjunctive (hypothetical), or imperative (command).
number	The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.
oratory	The art of formal public speaking and rhetoric; in Latin literature, speeches and rhetorical compositions designed to persuade or move an audience.
person	The grammatical category of Latin verbs that indicates whether the subject is first person (I/we), second person (you), or third person (he/she/it/they).
polysyndeton	The overuse of conjunctions between grammatical units of the same type that creates a slowing effect for emphasis.
repetition	The deliberate reuse of words, phrases, or grammatical structures in a text to create emphasis, rhythm, or stylistic effect.
stem	The base form of a word to which endings are added to indicate grammatical information such as case, number, and degree.
stylistic device	A technique or literary tool used by an author to create a particular effect or enhance the meaning and impact of a text.
tense	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating the time of an action (present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future, or future perfect).
tragedy	A dramatic genre depicting serious events and the downfall of a protagonist, typically involving noble characters and evoking pity and fear.
verb	Words that express actions, states, or conditions and are central to Latin sentence structure.
verbal	A word form derived from a verb that functions as another part of speech, such as a participle, gerund, or infinitive.
voice	The grammatical category of Latin verbs indicating whether the subject performs the action (active voice) or receives the action (passive voice).

6.2 Caesar, Gallic War, Book 5, Part I, Chapters 27-29

Term	Definition
ablative case	A Latin grammatical case with multiple functions, including showing the means, agent, manner, time, place, or separation in a sentence.
hyperbaton	The intentional rearrangement of words from their usual or expected order, used as a stylistic technique in Latin poetry and prose.
noun	Words that name persons, places, things, or ideas and function as subjects, objects, or complements in Latin sentences.
stylistic device	A technique or literary tool used by an author to create a particular effect or enhance the meaning and impact of a text.
word order	The arrangement and sequence of words in a Latin sentence, which can be manipulated as a stylistic device to create emphasis or convey meaning.

6.3 Caesar, Gallic War, Book 5, Part I, Chapters 30-32

Term	Definition
dactyls	A metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by two short syllables (– ∪ ∪).
iambs	A metrical foot consisting of one short syllable followed by one long syllable (∪ –).
meter	The regular, predictable pattern of long and short syllables that forms the rhythmic structure of Latin poetry.
spondees	A metrical foot consisting of two long syllables (– –).

6.4 Caesar, Gallic War, Book 5, Part I, Chapters 33-35

Term	Definition
adjective	Words that modify nouns and must agree with them in case, number, and gender in Latin.
agreement	The grammatical correspondence between adjectives and the nouns they modify in case, number, and gender.
case	The grammatical form of a Latin noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates its function in a sentence (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, or vocative).
elegy	A genre of Latin love poetry characterized by personal emotions and intimate relationships, typically written in elegiac couplets.
gender	The grammatical classification of Latin nouns, adjectives, and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter.
genre	A category or type of literary work with distinctive characteristics, conventions, and features.
number	The grammatical distinction between singular and plural forms of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Latin.
pronoun	Words that replace or refer to nouns and have gender, number, and case forms in Latin.

6.5 Caesar, Gallic War, Book 5, Part I, Chapters 36-37

Term	Definition
allusions	Indirect or implied references to people, literary works, or historical events that readers are expected to recognize.
Arion	A legendary Greek musician saved from drowning by a dolphin, featured in Ovid's Fasti Book 3.
Greco-Roman mythology	The combined body of myths and legends from both Greek and Roman cultures, often shared or adapted between the two civilizations.
Pantheon	The complete collection of gods worshipped by a particular culture or religion.
polytheistic religion	A religious system based on the belief in and worship of multiple gods.
references	Direct mentions or citations of specific people, places, events, or concepts in a text.

📋Unit 7 – Course Project

7.4 Caesar, Gallic War, Book 5, Chapters 47-48

Term	Definition
comparative analysis	The process of examining similarities and differences between two or more texts to understand their distinct characteristics and relationships.
cultural context	The historical, social, and cultural circumstances surrounding a text that inform its meaning and interpretation.
interpretive skills	The ability to analyze and explain the deeper meanings, purposes, and effects of a text beyond its literal content.
stylistic features	Distinctive techniques and choices in language, structure, and literary devices that an author uses to create meaning and effect in a text.