| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| class structures | The hierarchical organization of society into distinct social and economic groups based on wealth, occupation, and status. |
| colonialism | The practice of establishing political and economic control over distant territories and their populations, typically involving settlement and resource extraction. |
| diffusion | The spread of cultural traits, practices, beliefs, or innovations from one place or group to another over time and space. |
| imperialism | The policy or practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples through military, political, or economic means. |
| industrialization | The development of industries in a country or region on a large scale, involving the transformation of economies from agricultural to manufacturing-based. |
| natural resources | Materials and substances found in the natural environment that are useful or valuable to humans, such as water, minerals, forests, and fossil fuels. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources used as inputs in manufacturing and industrial production. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| break-of-bulk point | A location where goods are transferred from one mode of transportation to another, affecting manufacturing and distribution site selection. |
| core | Economically developed regions with advanced infrastructure, technology, and capital that attract manufacturing and industrial production. |
| economic sectors | Divisions of the economy based on the type of economic activity, including primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, and quinary sectors. |
| industrial production | The manufacturing and processing of goods using machinery and labor, typically organized in factories or industrial facilities. |
| labor | The human workforce and employment that influences the location decisions for manufacturing and industrial production. |
| least cost theory | An economic principle stating that manufacturing locations are chosen based on minimizing production and transportation costs. |
| markets | Areas of consumer demand and economic activity that influence where manufacturing facilities are located. |
| periphery | Less developed countries and regions on the outer edges of the global economic system with lower levels of industrialization and wealth. |
| primary sector | The economic sector focused on extracting and harvesting natural resources, such as agriculture, mining, and fishing. |
| quaternary sector | The economic sector focused on information, knowledge, and intellectual services, including research, finance, and administration. |
| quinary sector | The economic sector focused on high-level decision-making and strategic planning, including government and executive services. |
| resources | Raw materials and natural inputs required for manufacturing that influence industrial location decisions. |
| secondary sector | The economic sector focused on manufacturing and processing raw materials into finished goods. |
| semiperiphery | Countries and regions with intermediate levels of development, positioned between the core and periphery in the global economic system. |
| shipping containers | Standardized containers used for transporting goods via ships, trucks, and trains, influencing manufacturing location efficiency. |
| spatial patterns | The geographic distribution and arrangement of phenomena across a landscape or urban area. |
| tertiary sector | The economic sector focused on providing services to consumers and businesses, such as retail, healthcare, and education. |
| transportation | The movement of goods and materials, including shipping containers and infrastructure, that affects manufacturing location decisions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| access to health care | The availability and ability of individuals to obtain medical services and treatment. |
| empowerment | The process of increasing the capacity and authority of individuals or groups to make decisions and control resources. |
| fertility rate | The average number of children born to a woman during her reproductive lifetime in a given population. |
| formal economy | Economic activities that are officially recognized, regulated, and taxed by the government. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas. |
| Gender Inequality Index (GII) | A composite measure that reflects gender-based inequalities in reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation. |
| Gross Domestic Product (GDP) | The total monetary value of all finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. |
| Gross National Income (GNI) | The total income earned by a country's residents from all sources, including domestic production and income from abroad. |
| Gross National Product (GNP) | The total monetary value of all finished goods and services produced by a country's nationals, regardless of location, in a specific time period. |
| Human Development Index (HDI) | A composite measure that combines life expectancy, education, and income to assess and compare levels of development across countries. |
| income distribution | The way income is divided among individuals or households in a population, often measured by inequality indices. |
| infant mortality rates | The number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a population. |
| informal economy | Economic activities that are not officially recognized or regulated by the government, often including unregistered businesses and cash transactions. |
| labor-market participation | The involvement of individuals in the workforce and their engagement in paid employment. |
| literacy rates | The percentage of a population that can read and write at a basic level. |
| per capita | A measurement calculated by dividing a total by the number of people in a population. |
| renewable energy | Energy sources that are naturally replenished and sustainable, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. |
| reproductive health | A state of physical, mental, and social well-being related to reproduction and the ability to have healthy pregnancies and children. |
| sectoral structure of an economy | The division of an economy into sectors (primary, secondary, tertiary) based on the types of economic activities and industries. |
| spatial variation | Differences in characteristics, conditions, or phenomena across different geographic locations or regions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| economic development | The process of improving the economic well-being, productivity, and standard of living in a region or country. |
| employment opportunities | Available positions, jobs, and career advancement possibilities available to individuals in the labor market. |
| gender parity | A state of equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities between men and women in social, economic, and political spheres. |
| microloans | Small loans provided to individuals or small businesses, typically in developing countries, to support entrepreneurship and economic self-sufficiency. |
| standards of living | The level of material comfort and access to goods, services, and resources available to individuals or communities. |
| wage equity | Equal pay for equal work; the principle that men and women should receive the same compensation for performing the same job. |
| workforce | The total number of people employed or available for employment in a country, region, or organization. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commodity dependence | An economic condition where a country relies heavily on the export of raw materials or single commodities, making it vulnerable to price fluctuations and limiting economic diversification. |
| dependency theory | A development theory arguing that poorer nations remain economically dependent on wealthier nations due to colonial and imperial relationships, limiting their independent development. |
| Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth | A development theory that describes how economies progress through distinct stages from traditional societies to high mass consumption economies. |
| spatial variations in development | Differences in economic and social development levels across different geographic regions and locations. |
| World System Theory | Wallerstein's theory that explains global inequality through the interconnected relationship between core, periphery, and semi-periphery nations in the world economy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| comparative advantage | The ability of a country or region to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country, making it economically efficient to specialize in that product. |
| complementarity | The condition where different regions or countries possess resources or products that are needed by others, creating mutual benefits through trade. |
| debt crises | Situations where countries or regions accumulate unsustainable levels of debt, leading to economic instability and financial difficulties. |
| deindustrialization | The decline of manufacturing industries and industrial employment in a region or country, often accompanied by economic restructuring and job losses. |
| economic development | The process of improving the economic well-being, productivity, and standard of living in a region or country. |
| European Union | A political and economic union of European countries that facilitates free trade, movement of people, and coordinated economic policies among member states. |
| free trade agreements | International agreements between countries that reduce or eliminate tariffs and trade barriers to increase the flow of goods and services. |
| global financial crises | Severe disruptions in international financial systems that affect multiple economies, such as debt crises or banking collapses. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of people, economies, and cultures across the world through trade, technology, and communication. |
| interdependence | The mutual reliance of countries on each other for goods, services, and economic stability in the global economy. |
| International Monetary Fund | An international lending agency that provides financial assistance and policy guidance to countries experiencing economic difficulties. |
| international trade | The exchange of goods and services between countries, involving the movement of products across national borders. |
| Mercosur | A South American trade bloc that promotes free trade and economic integration among its member countries. |
| microloans | Small loans provided to individuals or small businesses, typically in developing countries, to support entrepreneurship and economic self-sufficiency. |
| neoliberal policies | Economic policies that emphasize free markets, reduced government intervention, privatization, and deregulation to promote economic growth and globalization. |
| Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries | The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, a cartel of oil-producing nations that coordinates petroleum production and pricing. |
| tariffs | Taxes imposed on imported goods that increase their price and protect domestic industries from foreign competition. |
| World Trade Organization | An international organization that oversees global trade agreements, resolves trade disputes, and promotes free trade among member nations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agglomeration | The clustering of related industries and businesses in the same geographic area to benefit from shared resources and infrastructure. |
| core regions | Economically developed, industrialized areas that are centers of wealth, technology, and political power in the global economy. |
| deindustrialization | The decline of manufacturing industries and industrial employment in a region or country, often accompanied by economic restructuring and job losses. |
| economic restructuring | The reorganization of an economy's industries and labor force in response to changing economic conditions and global competition. |
| economies of scale | Cost advantages gained by producing goods in large quantities, reducing the per-unit cost of production. |
| export-processing zones | Designated areas where foreign companies can import raw materials, manufacture products, and export finished goods with reduced tariffs and regulations. |
| free-trade zones | Geographic areas where goods can be imported, stored, and processed with minimal customs duties and trade restrictions. |
| growth poles | Geographic centers of economic growth and development that attract investment, create jobs, and stimulate surrounding regional development. |
| high technology industries | Economic sectors focused on advanced technology and innovation, such as information technology, biotechnology, and telecommunications. |
| interdependence | The mutual reliance of countries on each other for goods, services, and economic stability in the global economy. |
| international division of labor | The specialization of countries in different stages of production based on their economic development, resources, and comparative advantages. |
| international trade | The exchange of goods and services between countries, involving the movement of products across national borders. |
| just-in-time delivery | A production and supply chain method where materials and products are delivered exactly when needed, minimizing inventory storage. |
| multiplier effects | The cumulative economic impact when spending by one entity generates additional income and spending throughout the economy. |
| newly industrialized countries | Developing nations that have experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth, often through manufacturing and export-oriented production. |
| outsourcing | The practice of contracting work or production to external companies, often in other countries, to reduce costs. |
| post-Fordist methods of production | Modern production approaches that emphasize flexibility, customization, and technological innovation as alternatives to mass production assembly lines. |
| service sectors | Industries that provide services rather than physical goods, including finance, retail, healthcare, and tourism. |
| special economic zones | Designated geographic areas with special economic regulations and incentives designed to attract foreign investment and manufacturing. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns, primarily caused by human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions. |
| ecotourism | Tourism based in natural environments that aims to protect the environment while providing economic benefits and employment to local populations. |
| industrialization | The development of industries in a country or region on a large scale, involving the transformation of economies from agricultural to manufacturing-based. |
| mass consumption | The widespread purchasing and use of goods and services by large populations, often leading to increased resource use and waste. |
| natural-resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources such as forests, minerals, and water due to overuse or extraction. |
| pollution | The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the environment that damage ecosystems and human health. |
| public transportation | Systems of buses, trains, and other vehicles available to the general public for moving people within and between urban areas. |
| small-scale finance | Financial services and lending programs designed to support small businesses and local economic development in communities. |
| spatial development | The geographic patterns and processes of how land, resources, and infrastructure are organized and developed across space. |
| sustainability principles | Guidelines and practices designed to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. |
| Sustainable Development Goals | A set of United Nations objectives designed to measure progress in development across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. |
| sustainable development policies | Government and organizational strategies designed to balance economic growth, environmental protection, and social well-being. |