2.3 Language change over time

Languages constantly evolve, reflecting societal changes and cultural shifts. This dynamic process involves modifications in vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and meaning. Understanding these changes helps us trace linguistic development and divergence over time.

Language change occurs through various mechanisms, including borrowing, analogy, and grammaticalization. Both internal linguistic factors and external social influences shape how languages transform. Studying these changes provides insights into human communication and cultural evolution.

Types of language change

• Language change refers to the ways in which languages evolve over time, resulting in modifications to their lexicon, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics
• These changes can occur gradually or rapidly and may be influenced by various internal and external factors such as social, cultural, and historical events
• Understanding the different types of language change is crucial for analyzing how languages develop and diverge from one another

Lexical changes

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• Involve the addition, loss, or modification of words in a language's vocabulary
• Can occur through processes such as borrowing from other languages (loanwords), coining new words (neologisms), or the obsolescence of existing words (archaisms)
• Examples include the introduction of the word "selfie" in the 21st century and the obsolescence of the word "thou" in modern English

Phonological changes

• Refer to changes in the sound system of a language, including the pronunciation of individual sounds (phonemes) and the rules governing their combination
• Can involve processes such as sound shifts, mergers, or splits, which alter the phonetic inventory or distribution of sounds in a language
• An example is the Great Vowel Shift in English, which resulted in changes to the pronunciation of long vowels between the 14th and 18th centuries

Morphological changes

• Pertain to changes in the structure and formation of words, including inflectional and derivational morphology
• Can involve the simplification or loss of inflectional endings, the emergence of new affixes, or changes in the productivity of existing morphological processes
• An example is the loss of case endings in Old English, which resulted in a more analytic grammatical structure in modern English

Syntactic changes

• Involve changes in the grammatical structure of sentences, including word order, clause structure, and the use of function words
• Can be driven by processes such as grammaticalization, where content words develop into function words, or by changes in the relative prominence of different sentence structures
• An example is the rise of the periphrastic "do" in Early Modern English questions and negatives, which replaced earlier verb-subject inversion patterns

Semantic changes

• Refer to changes in the meaning of words or expressions over time, often resulting in the broadening, narrowing, or shift of their semantic scope
• Can be driven by processes such as metaphorical extension, metonymy, or semantic bleaching, where words lose their original meaning and acquire new, more abstract senses
• Examples include the semantic broadening of the word "nice" from meaning "foolish" in Middle English to its current positive sense, and the semantic narrowing of the word "meat" from referring to food in general to specifically animal flesh

Mechanisms of language change

• Language change occurs through various mechanisms that operate at different levels of the linguistic system, from the individual speaker to the broader speech community
• These mechanisms can be driven by both internal factors, such as the inherent properties of the language itself, and external factors, such as social, cultural, and historical influences
• Understanding the different mechanisms of language change is essential for explaining how and why languages evolve over time

Language contact

• Occurs when speakers of different languages or varieties come into contact with one another, leading to the exchange of linguistic features and the emergence of new contact varieties
• Can result in various outcomes, such as borrowing, code-switching, pidginization, or creolization, depending on the intensity and duration of the contact situation
• Examples include the influence of Norman French on English vocabulary after the Norman Conquest, and the emergence of pidgin and creole languages in colonial settings

Borrowing vs code-switching

• Borrowing involves the incorporation of words or other linguistic elements from one language into another, often adapting them to the phonological and morphological patterns of the recipient language
• Code-switching, on the other hand, refers to the alternation between two or more languages or varieties within a single conversation or utterance, without necessarily adapting the switched elements to the recipient language
• While borrowing leads to more permanent changes in a language's lexicon, code-switching is often a more transient phenomenon that reflects the multilingual competence of individual speakers

Analogy

• A cognitive process whereby speakers extend existing linguistic patterns to new forms or contexts, based on perceived similarities or regularities in the language system
• Can lead to the regularization of irregular forms, the creation of new words or expressions based on existing models, or the reanalysis of linguistic structures
• An example is the regularization of the past tense form of the verb "help" from "holp" to "helped" in Early Modern English, based on the analogy with regular past tense forms

Reanalysis

• Occurs when speakers reinterpret the underlying structure of a linguistic form or construction, often leading to changes in its grammatical status or meaning
• Can be triggered by ambiguity in the input, or by changes in the relative frequency or salience of different linguistic cues
• An example is the reanalysis of the noun "hamburger" as a compound of "ham" and "burger", even though the original meaning was related to the German city of Hamburg

Grammaticalization

• The process whereby content words or lexical items develop into function words or grammatical markers over time, often accompanied by semantic bleaching and phonetic reduction
• Can lead to the emergence of new grammatical categories, such as tense, aspect, or case markers, or to the restructuring of existing grammatical systems
• An example is the development of the English future marker "will" from a main verb meaning "to want or desire" to a grammatical marker of futurity

Internal vs external factors

• Language change is influenced by a complex interplay of internal and external factors that operate at different levels of the linguistic system and the speech community
• Internal factors refer to the inherent properties of the language itself, such as its phonological, morphological, and syntactic structure, which can create pressures for change or stability over time
• External factors, on the other hand, refer to the social, cultural, and historical context in which the language is used, which can shape the direction and pace of change through various mechanisms

Social factors

• Include the demographic composition of the speech community, the social networks and interactions among speakers, and the power dynamics and ideologies that shape language use and attitudes
• Can influence language change through processes such as accommodation, where speakers adjust their language use to match that of their interlocutors, or through the diffusion of innovations from socially prestigious or influential groups
• Examples include the spread of the "r-dropping" feature in English from upper-class London speech to other regional varieties, and the influence of African American Vernacular English on mainstream American English slang

Geographical factors

• Refer to the spatial distribution of languages and dialects, and the ways in which geographical barriers or boundaries can shape the direction and extent of language change
• Can lead to the divergence of language varieties over time, as innovations spread more easily within than across geographical regions, or to the formation of dialect continua, where adjacent varieties are mutually intelligible but more distant ones are not
• Examples include the divergence of Romance languages from Latin as a result of geographical separation and substrate influences, and the formation of the West Germanic dialect continuum stretching from the Netherlands to Austria

Cultural factors

• Encompass the shared beliefs, values, and practices of a speech community, which can shape language use and attitudes in various ways
• Can influence language change through processes such as language contact and borrowing, where cultural exchange leads to the adoption of new words or expressions, or through the maintenance or revival of threatened languages as a marker of cultural identity
• Examples include the influence of Arabic on Spanish vocabulary during the Islamic period, and the revival of Welsh and other Celtic languages as part of nationalist and cultural movements

Linguistic factors

• Refer to the structural properties of the language itself, such as its phonological inventory, morphological complexity, and syntactic rules, which can create pressures for change or stability over time
• Can influence language change through processes such as sound shifts, analogy, or grammaticalization, which are driven by the inherent properties of the linguistic system rather than external factors
• Examples include the tendency for languages with complex morphology to simplify over time, as in the loss of case endings in English, and the tendency for frequently used words to undergo phonetic reduction and semantic bleaching, as in the grammaticalization of "going to" as a future marker

Stages of language change

• Language change is a gradual process that typically unfolds over several stages, from the initial emergence of a new linguistic form or structure to its eventual conventionalization and integration into the language system
• These stages reflect the complex interplay of individual and social factors that shape the direction and pace of change, and the ways in which innovations spread through the speech community over time
• Understanding the different stages of language change is crucial for analyzing the mechanisms and consequences of linguistic evolution, and for developing models of language variation and change

Innovation

• The first stage of language change, where a new linguistic form or structure emerges in the speech of one or more individuals, often as a result of creativity, analogy, or reanalysis
• Innovations can arise spontaneously or be motivated by various factors, such as the need to express new meanings, the influence of other languages or varieties, or the desire to mark social identity or style
• Examples include the coinage of new words or expressions, such as "selfie" or "googling", and the use of non-standard grammatical forms, such as "I be" or "you was", in certain dialects or registers

Propagation

• The second stage of language change, where an innovation spreads from its initial users to other members of the speech community, often through social networks and interactions
• The spread of an innovation can be influenced by various factors, such as the social prestige or influence of the innovators, the compatibility of the innovation with existing linguistic norms, and the communicative needs and attitudes of the adopters
• Examples include the spread of slang terms or catchphrases from one social group to another, and the diffusion of phonological or grammatical innovations from one region or dialect to another

Establishment

• The third stage of language change, where an innovation becomes more widely accepted and used within the speech community, often coexisting with older forms or structures for some time
• The establishment of an innovation can be facilitated by various factors, such as its frequency of use, its semantic or pragmatic utility, and its association with particular social or stylistic meanings
• Examples include the gradual acceptance of loanwords or borrowed structures into a language's lexicon or grammar, and the emergence of new grammatical categories or constructions through processes such as grammaticalization

Conventionalization

• The final stage of language change, where an innovation becomes fully integrated into the language system, often replacing older forms or structures and being transmitted to new generations of speakers
• The conventionalization of an innovation can be accompanied by various processes, such as semantic broadening or narrowing, phonological reduction or assimilation, and morphological or syntactic reanalysis
• Examples include the complete replacement of "thou" by "you" as the second-person singular pronoun in English, and the conventionalization of the periphrastic "do" in questions and negatives, which has become a standard feature of the language

Reconstructing language history

• The study of language history involves the use of various methods and techniques to reconstruct the earlier stages of a language or language family, based on the available linguistic and non-linguistic evidence
• These methods rely on the systematic comparison of related languages or varieties, the analysis of internal linguistic patterns and irregularities, and the correlation of linguistic data with historical, archaeological, and cultural information
• Reconstructing language history is crucial for understanding the origins and development of languages, the relationships among them, and the broader processes of linguistic and cultural evolution

Comparative method

• A technique used to reconstruct the proto-language or common ancestor of a group of related languages, based on the systematic comparison of their phonological, morphological, and lexical features
• Involves the identification of regular sound correspondences among the languages, the reconstruction of proto-forms based on these correspondences, and the establishment of a family tree or phylogeny representing the historical relationships among the languages
• Has been successfully applied to reconstruct proto-languages such as Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Austronesian, and Proto-Bantu, and to establish the genetic classification of languages into families and subgroups

Internal reconstruction

• A method used to reconstruct the earlier stages of a single language, based on the analysis of internal linguistic patterns and irregularities that reflect historical processes of change
• Involves the identification of alternations or variations in the language that cannot be explained by synchronic rules or constraints, and the postulation of earlier forms or structures that can account for these alternations through regular sound changes or analogical processes
• Has been used to reconstruct the pre-documentary stages of languages such as Latin, Sanskrit, and Chinese, and to trace the development of specific linguistic features or categories over time

Linguistic paleontology

• An approach that uses linguistic data, especially vocabulary related to material culture, social organization, and the natural environment, to make inferences about the history and culture of speech communities in the absence of direct historical or archaeological evidence
• Involves the comparison of cognate words across related languages, the reconstruction of their proto-forms and meanings, and the correlation of these reconstructions with what is known about the cultures and environments of the speakers
• Has been used to shed light on the early history and migrations of Indo-European, Austronesian, and other language families, and to reconstruct aspects of their material culture, such as agriculture, metallurgy, and kinship systems

Consequences of language change

• Language change can have various consequences for the structure and use of languages, as well as for the social, cultural, and political dynamics of speech communities
• These consequences can range from the divergence of languages and the formation of dialect continua to the endangerment and loss of linguistic diversity, and the emergence of new contact varieties and linguistic practices
• Understanding the consequences of language change is crucial for analyzing the ways in which languages and societies evolve over time, and for developing policies and strategies for language maintenance, revitalization, and documentation

Language divergence

• Occurs when a single language or proto-language splits into two or more distinct varieties over time, often as a result of geographical, social, or cultural separation
• Can lead to the formation of separate languages that are no longer mutually intelligible, or to the emergence of dialects that differ in their phonology, grammar, or vocabulary but are still considered part of the same language
• Examples include the divergence of Latin into the modern Romance languages, such as French, Spanish, and Italian, and the split of Proto-Germanic into North, West, and East Germanic branches

Dialect continuum

• A situation where adjacent language varieties are mutually intelligible, but varieties at the extremes of the continuum are not, often as a result of gradual linguistic changes and innovations spreading across a geographical area
• Can make it difficult to establish clear boundaries between languages and dialects, and can lead to the emergence of transitional or mixed varieties in the contact zones between them
• Examples include the West Germanic dialect continuum, which encompasses varieties from Dutch to Swiss German, and the Scandinavian dialect continuum, which includes Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian

Language death vs revitalization

• Language death occurs when a language ceases to be used as a means of communication by a speech community, often as a result of shifting to a more dominant or prestigious language
• Language revitalization, on the other hand, refers to the efforts to maintain or revive threatened languages, often through community-based initiatives and language policies that promote their use and transmission
• While language death leads to the loss of linguistic diversity and cultural heritage, language revitalization can help to preserve and strengthen the identity and vitality of minority language communities

Attitudes towards language change

• Language change often evokes strong attitudes and reactions from speakers and society at large, ranging from resistance and purism to acceptance and creativity
• These attitudes are shaped by various factors, such as the perceived prestige or correctness of different language varieties, the social and cultural values associated with them, and the power dynamics and ideologies that underlie language use and standardization
• Understanding attitudes towards language change is crucial for analyzing the ways in which language ideologies and practices evolve over time, and for developing inclusive and equitable approaches to language education, policy, and planning

Prescriptivism vs descriptivism

• Prescriptivism is the view that there are correct and incorrect ways of using language, often based on the norms of a particular variety or register, such as Standard English
• Descriptivism, on the other hand, is the approach that aims to describe and analyze language as it is actually used by speakers, without making value judgments about its correctness or appropriateness
• While prescriptivism can lead to the stigmatization and marginalization of non-standard varieties and their speakers, descriptivism can help to promote a more inclusive and realistic understanding of language variation and change

Standard language ideology

• The belief that there is a single, correct, and uniform variety of a language that should be used in all formal and public contexts, often based on the norms of a particular social or regional group
• Can lead to the devaluation and suppression of non-standard varieties and the linguistic insecurity of their speakers, as well as to the perpetuation of social and educational inequalities
• Examples include the promotion of Received Pronunciation (RP) as the standard accent of British English, and the stigmatization of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) in the United States

Language purism

• The view that a language should be kept free from foreign influences, neologisms, and non-standard forms, often motivated by nationalist or traditionalist ideologies
• Can lead to the rejection or censorship of loanwords, the creation of artificial neologisms based on native roots, and the prescription of conservative or archaic forms over innovative or colloquial ones
• Examples include the efforts to purify French from English loanwords, the creation of Sanskrit-based neologisms in Hindi, and the promotion of "pure" or "correct" forms of Arabic over regional dialects