11.2 Second language acquisition
10 min read•august 20, 2024
Second language acquisition is a complex process involving distinct stages of development. Learners progress from minimal comprehension to near-native fluency, with each stage characterized by specific linguistic abilities and limitations. Understanding these stages helps educators tailor instruction to learners' needs.
Various factors influence second language acquisition, including age, motivation, aptitude, and learning strategies. Recognizing these factors allows educators to create optimal learning environments and support learners' individual needs. Theories of second language acquisition provide frameworks for understanding the underlying processes of language learning.
Stages of second language acquisition
- Second language acquisition progresses through distinct stages learners move through as they develop proficiency in the target language
- Each stage is characterized by specific linguistic abilities and limitations learners exhibit as they gradually acquire the second language
Pre-production stage
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- Also known as the silent period, learners have minimal comprehension of the target language
- Learners may not verbalize but can respond non-verbally through gestures or actions (pointing, nodding)
- Learners are actively listening and attuning to the sounds and patterns of the new language
- Learners may be able to produce single words or short phrases (hello, thank you)
Early production stage
- Learners begin to produce simple words and phrases in the target language
- Vocabulary is limited to high-frequency words and learners rely heavily on context for comprehension
- Learners may engage in formulaic speech, using memorized chunks of language (How are you? My name is...)
- Grammatical structures are simple and errors are common as learners experiment with language
Speech emergence stage
- Learners' vocabulary expands rapidly and they are able to produce longer, more complex utterances
- Learners can engage in basic conversations and ask simple questions in the target language
- Comprehension improves but learners still rely on contextual cues and may struggle with abstract language
- Grammatical structures become more varied but errors persist, particularly with more complex constructions
Intermediate fluency stage
- Learners can engage in more extended discourse and express opinions and thoughts in the target language
- Vocabulary knowledge expands to include more academic and abstract terms
- Grammatical accuracy improves and learners can use a wider range of structures, though some fossilized errors may persist
- Learners can understand main ideas of authentic texts and spoken language but may miss subtleties and nuances
Advanced fluency stage
- Learners have near-native proficiency in the target language and can communicate fluently and effectively in a wide range of contexts
- Vocabulary is extensive and includes low-frequency and specialized terms
- Grammatical structures are accurate and complex, with only occasional errors
- Learners can understand and produce language at a level comparable to native speakers, with an understanding of cultural references and idiomatic expressions
Factors influencing second language acquisition
- Various individual and contextual factors can impact the rate and success of second language acquisition
- Understanding these factors can help educators tailor instruction and support to meet learners' needs
Age of acquisition
- The age at which a learner begins acquiring a second language can affect the ultimate level of proficiency attained
- Younger learners may have an advantage in achieving native-like pronunciation and fluency
- Older learners may have better metalinguistic awareness and learning strategies to facilitate acquisition
Motivation and attitude
- Learners' motivation to learn the target language and their attitudes toward the language and culture can significantly impact their success
- Integrative motivation (desire to connect with the target language community) is often associated with higher proficiency
- Positive attitudes and a strong sense of self-efficacy can lead to greater engagement and persistence in language learning
Language learning aptitude
- Individual differences in cognitive abilities related to language learning can influence the rate and ease of acquisition
- Aptitude includes phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and rote learning ability
- Learners with higher aptitude may require less instructional support and progress more quickly
Cognitive style and learning strategies
- Learners' preferred cognitive styles (global vs. analytical, reflective vs. impulsive) can impact their approach to language learning
- Learning strategies, such as metacognitive, cognitive, and social-affective strategies, can enhance language acquisition when used effectively
- Matching instruction to learners' cognitive styles and teaching effective learning strategies can optimize learning outcomes
Personality traits
- Certain personality traits, such as extroversion, risk-taking, and tolerance for ambiguity, may facilitate second language acquisition
- Extroverted learners may seek out more opportunities for interaction and practice in the target language
- Learners who are willing to take risks and tolerate uncertainty may be more likely to experiment with language and learn from their mistakes
First language proficiency
- Learners' proficiency in their first language can impact their acquisition of a second language
- Well-developed first language skills, particularly in literacy, can to the second language and support learning
- Learners with limited first language proficiency may struggle with metalinguistic concepts and require additional support
Quality and quantity of input
- The input learners receive in the target language, both in terms of quality and quantity, plays a crucial role in second language acquisition
- Input should be comprehensible, meaning slightly beyond the learner's current level, and provide meaningful context
- Learners need ample exposure to the target language through reading, listening, and interaction to develop proficiency
Theories of second language acquisition
- Various theories have been proposed to explain the processes and mechanisms underlying second language acquisition
- Each theory emphasizes different aspects of language learning and has implications for pedagogy
Behaviorist theory
- Views language learning as a process of habit formation through stimulus-response conditioning
- Learners acquire language by imitating and repeating language patterns and receiving positive reinforcement
- Errors are seen as bad habits that should be corrected immediately to prevent
Nativist theory
- Proposes that language acquisition is innate and guided by a language acquisition device (LAD) in the brain
- Learners have an innate knowledge of universal grammar that helps them acquire language rules and structures
- Input serves to trigger the LAD and activate the language learning process
Interactionist theory
- Emphasizes the role of interaction and negotiation of meaning in language acquisition
- Learners acquire language through meaningful communication and the modification of input to make it comprehensible
- Interaction provides opportunities for learners to receive feedback, test hypotheses, and refine their language skills
Sociocultural theory
- Views language learning as a social process mediated by interaction with more proficient others
- Learners acquire language through collaborative dialogue and within the zone of proximal development
- Language learning is embedded in cultural contexts and learners' identities and social relationships shape their language development
Connectionist theory
- Proposes that language acquisition occurs through the formation of neural networks in the brain
- Learners develop language skills through exposure to input and the strengthening of connections between neurons
- Language learning is a gradual, probabilistic process based on the frequency and regularity of input patterns
Individual differences in second language acquisition
- Learners vary in their language learning styles, strategies, and affective and cognitive factors that can impact their success
- Understanding and accommodating individual differences can help create a more effective and inclusive language learning environment
Language learning styles
- Learners have different preferred modes of processing and retaining new information (visual, auditory, kinesthetic)
- Some learners may prefer a more global, top-down approach to language learning, while others may prefer a more analytical, bottom-up approach
- Matching instruction to learners' preferred styles can enhance engagement and learning outcomes
Language learning strategies
- Learners use various strategies to facilitate their language learning, such as memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies
- Effective learners often use a combination of strategies and adapt them to different tasks and contexts
- Teaching learners to use appropriate strategies can help them become more autonomous and successful language learners
Affective factors
- Learners' emotional states and attitudes can significantly impact their language learning success
- Factors such as anxiety, self-esteem, and willingness to communicate can influence learners' participation and performance in language tasks
- Creating a supportive and low-anxiety learning environment can help learners overcome affective barriers and engage more fully in language learning
Cognitive factors
- Learners' cognitive abilities, such as working memory capacity, processing speed, and attention control, can affect their language learning efficiency
- Learners with higher cognitive abilities may be able to process and retain language input more effectively
- Providing cognitively engaging tasks and supporting learners' cognitive development can enhance language learning outcomes
Role of input in second language acquisition
- Input, or the language that learners are exposed to, plays a crucial role in second language acquisition
- Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain how input facilitates language development
Comprehensible input hypothesis
- Proposed by , this hypothesis suggests that learners acquire language when they receive input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence (i+1)
- is essential for language acquisition, as it allows learners to make sense of the language and build their linguistic knowledge
- Teachers should provide learners with ample comprehensible input through modified speech, visual aids, and contextual support
Interaction hypothesis
- Proposed by Michael Long, this hypothesis emphasizes the role of interaction in making input comprehensible and facilitating language acquisition
- Through interaction, learners can negotiate meaning, receive feedback, and modify their output to make it more target-like
- Teachers should create opportunities for meaningful interaction in the classroom through pair and group work, information gap activities, and authentic communication tasks
Output hypothesis
- Proposed by Merrill Swain, this hypothesis suggests that language production (output) is necessary for language acquisition, not just comprehensible input
- Producing language pushes learners to process language more deeply, notice gaps in their knowledge, and test hypotheses about language forms and functions
- Teachers should provide learners with ample opportunities to produce language through speaking and writing tasks that encourage the use of newly acquired forms and structures
Noticing hypothesis
- Proposed by Richard Schmidt, this hypothesis suggests that learners must consciously notice language features in the input for acquisition to occur
- Noticing can be facilitated through input enhancement techniques, such as highlighting, bolding, or underlining target language forms
- Teachers should draw learners' attention to key language features through explicit instruction, corrective feedback, and guided discovery activities
Challenges in second language acquisition
- Learners may face various challenges in the process of acquiring a second language that can hinder their progress and ultimate attainment
- Understanding these challenges can help teachers provide targeted support and interventions to help learners overcome them
Fossilization
- Fossilization refers to the persistence of non-target-like forms in learners' despite continued exposure to input and instruction
- Learners may plateau at a certain level of proficiency and struggle to move beyond it, particularly in areas such as pronunciation and complex grammatical structures
- Teachers can help prevent fossilization by providing consistent feedback, encouraging self-monitoring and self-correction, and offering targeted practice opportunities
Interlanguage development
- Interlanguage refers to the unique linguistic system that learners develop as they progress in their second language acquisition
- Learners' interlanguage is characterized by systematic errors, overgeneralization of rules, and simplification of language forms
- Teachers should view interlanguage as a natural stage of development and provide feedback and support to help learners refine their language skills over time
Cross-linguistic influence
- Learners' first language can influence their acquisition of a second language through positive transfer (facilitating learning) or negative transfer (interfering with learning)
- Similarities between the first and second language can lead to positive transfer, while differences can result in errors and confusion
- Teachers should be aware of potential areas of and provide targeted instruction and practice to help learners overcome negative transfer effects
Affective filter
- The , proposed by Stephen Krashen, refers to the emotional and motivational barriers that can prevent learners from fully engaging in language learning
- Factors such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and lack of motivation can raise the affective filter and limit learners' receptivity to input and willingness to produce language
- Teachers should create a supportive and low-anxiety learning environment, build learners' confidence, and foster intrinsic motivation to help lower the affective filter
Strategies for successful second language acquisition
- Various strategies can be employed by both teachers and learners to facilitate successful second language acquisition
- These strategies aim to maximize exposure to the target language, provide meaningful practice opportunities, and support learners' cognitive and affective needs
Immersion and exposure
- Providing learners with ample exposure to the target language through authentic materials and real-world interactions can facilitate language acquisition
- Immersion programs, where learners are taught content subjects in the target language, can be particularly effective in promoting language proficiency
- Teachers should create a language-rich environment in the classroom and encourage learners to seek out additional exposure outside of class through media, native speaker interactions, and study abroad opportunities
Meaningful interaction and communication
- Engaging learners in meaningful communication tasks that require the use of the target language for authentic purposes can promote language acquisition
- Information gap activities, role-plays, and project-based learning can provide learners with opportunities to negotiate meaning, receive feedback, and refine their language skills
- Teachers should design tasks that are relevant to learners' interests and needs, and that encourage the use of a wide range of language forms and functions
Explicit instruction and feedback
- Providing explicit instruction on language forms, functions, and pragmatics can help learners develop a more complete understanding of the target language system
- Corrective feedback, both implicit and explicit, can help learners notice gaps in their knowledge and modify their output to be more target-like
- Teachers should use a variety of feedback techniques, such as recasts, prompts, and metalinguistic explanations, and tailor their feedback to learners' individual needs and preferences
Metacognitive strategies
- Teaching learners to use metacognitive strategies, such as planning, monitoring, and evaluating their own learning, can help them become more autonomous and effective language learners
- Metacognitive strategies can help learners set goals, assess their progress, and adjust their learning strategies as needed
- Teachers should model and teach metacognitive strategies explicitly, and provide learners with opportunities to practice and reflect on their use of these strategies
Affective strategies
- Supporting learners' affective needs, such as reducing anxiety, building self-esteem, and fostering motivation, can contribute to successful second language acquisition
- Affective strategies, such as relaxation techniques, positive self-talk, and goal-setting, can help learners manage their emotions and maintain a positive attitude towards language learning
- Teachers should create a supportive and inclusive classroom environment, provide opportunities for success and recognition, and help learners develop a growth mindset towards language learning
Key Terms to Review (30)
Advanced fluency: Advanced fluency is the stage in second language acquisition where an individual can communicate effectively and effortlessly in various contexts, demonstrating a high level of proficiency. At this level, learners are able to engage in complex conversations, understand nuanced meanings, and express themselves with clarity and sophistication. This stage often involves a deep understanding of cultural references and idiomatic expressions, allowing for more natural and authentic interactions.
Affective filter: The affective filter is a psychological barrier that can influence language acquisition, particularly in the context of learning a second language. It refers to emotional factors like anxiety, motivation, and self-esteem that can either facilitate or impede the learning process. A lower affective filter allows learners to be more open and receptive to new information, while a higher filter can restrict their ability to acquire language effectively.
Behaviorist theory: Behaviorist theory is a psychological perspective that emphasizes observable behaviors as the main focus of study, arguing that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. This theory connects to both first and second language acquisition, suggesting that language learning occurs through reinforcement, repetition, and environmental stimuli rather than through innate biological mechanisms or cognitive processes.
Bilingualism: Bilingualism is the ability to speak and understand two languages fluently. It plays a crucial role in various aspects of society, impacting language rights, official designations, second language acquisition processes, and the development of pidgins and creoles as linguistic forms arise from contact between languages.
Code-switching: Code-switching is the practice of alternating between two or more languages or language varieties within a conversation or discourse. This linguistic behavior highlights the dynamic relationship between language and social context, as speakers navigate different cultural identities, social settings, and communicative needs.
Comprehensible input: Comprehensible input refers to language input that learners can understand while still being challenged to develop their language skills. It is essential for second language acquisition, as it provides learners with the necessary linguistic exposure to acquire new vocabulary and grammatical structures in a context they can grasp. This concept emphasizes the importance of input that is slightly above the current proficiency level of the learner, often referred to as 'i+1', where 'i' is the learner's current level.
Connectionist theory: Connectionist theory is a model of cognitive processes that emphasizes the role of networks of interconnected units, or nodes, to explain how knowledge is acquired and represented. In the context of language learning, particularly in second language acquisition, this theory suggests that learners form associations between words, sounds, and meanings through exposure and practice, enabling them to gradually build their language skills.
Cross-linguistic influence: Cross-linguistic influence refers to the effect that a person's native language has on their learning and use of a second language. This phenomenon can manifest in various ways, including interference in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and overall communication strategies. Understanding this influence is essential in second language acquisition as it can help identify challenges learners face and develop more effective teaching methods.
Early production: Early production refers to a stage in second language acquisition where learners begin to produce simple spoken language, typically using short phrases or sentences. This stage is characterized by an increase in verbal output as learners start to experiment with vocabulary and grammatical structures, reflecting their developing understanding of the new language.
Formal settings: Formal settings refer to environments where interactions are structured and adhere to specific social norms and conventions, often characterized by their seriousness and purposefulness. In these contexts, language use is typically more standardized, and participants are expected to behave in a way that aligns with established protocols, impacting how individuals acquire and use a second language.
Fossilization: Fossilization is a phenomenon in second language acquisition where a learner's interlanguage stabilizes and develops persistent errors, preventing further improvement in proficiency. This process often occurs when learners reach a certain level of language ability but are unable to attain native-like fluency due to various factors such as age, exposure, and practice. Fossilization can result in the retention of incorrect grammatical forms or pronunciations, which can become ingrained in the learner's speech patterns.
Informal settings: Informal settings refer to environments where communication occurs in a relaxed, casual atmosphere, often characterized by spontaneous and unstructured interactions. These settings can range from everyday conversations among friends to casual gatherings, and they significantly influence the way language is used, learned, and acquired, especially for those learning a second language.
Input Hypothesis: The Input Hypothesis is a theory in second language acquisition that suggests learners acquire language best when they are exposed to comprehensible input that is slightly beyond their current proficiency level. This means that effective language learning occurs when students understand the majority of what they hear or read, but also encounter new vocabulary and structures that challenge them just enough to promote growth.
Interaction Hypothesis: The Interaction Hypothesis suggests that language acquisition occurs through interaction and communication, emphasizing the importance of meaningful exchanges between learners and speakers of the target language. This theory argues that through conversation, learners receive feedback and negotiate meaning, which helps them to develop their linguistic skills more effectively than through mere exposure to the language.
Interactionist theory: Interactionist theory posits that language acquisition is primarily a social process, emphasizing the importance of interaction between learners and their environment. This perspective highlights how communication and social context play critical roles in both first and second language acquisition, suggesting that learners gain language skills through meaningful exchanges and collaborative engagement with others.
Interlanguage: Interlanguage is a term used to describe the evolving linguistic system that language learners develop as they acquire a second language. This system incorporates elements from both the learner's native language and the target language, often leading to unique grammatical structures and vocabulary choices. It reflects the learner's current understanding and proficiency, showing a mixture of rules and influences from both languages.
Interlanguage development: Interlanguage development refers to the evolving linguistic system that learners create while acquiring a second language, reflecting elements from their native language, the target language, and the processes of language learning itself. This dynamic system is marked by a series of stages where learners may exhibit both systematic errors and advancements as they bridge the gap between their first language and the new language they are learning. Interlanguage is influenced by factors such as input, feedback, and the learner's environment, making it a key concept in understanding how individuals acquire a second language.
Intermediate fluency: Intermediate fluency is a stage in second language acquisition where learners can communicate with relative ease and understanding, though they may still struggle with complex language structures and vocabulary. At this level, individuals can engage in conversations on familiar topics, express opinions, and comprehend more extended speech or written texts, but may still need support when encountering unfamiliar language or situations.
Jim Cummins: Jim Cummins is a prominent educational researcher known for his work in bilingual education and second language acquisition, particularly regarding the concepts of Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). His theories emphasize the importance of understanding language proficiency in educational settings, highlighting how students’ linguistic backgrounds can impact their academic success and language learning processes.
Language immersion: Language immersion is an educational approach where learners are placed in an environment where they are surrounded by and required to use a target language in order to communicate and learn. This method helps facilitate natural acquisition of the language by engaging students in real-life contexts and experiences, promoting fluency and comprehension as they actively participate in activities using the language.
Modified input: Modified input refers to the adjustments made in the language used by a speaker when communicating with a second language learner. This includes simplifying vocabulary, altering sentence structure, or providing contextual clues to enhance comprehension and facilitate learning. The goal of modified input is to make the language more accessible for learners, helping them acquire new language skills through exposure to comprehensible yet slightly challenging language.
Nativist theory: Nativist theory is the idea that humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language, suggesting that certain linguistic structures are hardwired into the brain. This perspective argues that children do not merely learn language through imitation or environmental stimuli, but rather possess an inherent capacity for understanding and producing language. It emphasizes the role of biological factors in language development, making a clear distinction between first and second language acquisition.
Placement tests: Placement tests are assessments used to determine a learner's language proficiency and help place them in the appropriate level or course for their language study. These tests evaluate skills such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking, ensuring that students are grouped according to their abilities. This is crucial for effective second language acquisition, as it allows educators to tailor instruction to meet the diverse needs of learners.
Pre-production: Pre-production is the initial stage of second language acquisition where learners focus on listening and comprehension before they begin to speak. During this phase, individuals are absorbing new language input and building their vocabulary, but they typically do not produce language themselves. This stage is crucial as it lays the foundation for later language use and helps learners gain confidence in their abilities.
Proficiency tests: Proficiency tests are assessments designed to measure an individual's language skills and abilities, often focusing on reading, writing, speaking, and listening. These tests are crucial for understanding how well someone can use a second language in various contexts and help determine their level of competency, which can inform educational placements or job qualifications.
Scaffolding: Scaffolding refers to a supportive framework provided to learners that helps them acquire new skills or knowledge while gradually reducing assistance as they gain independence. This concept is vital in understanding how individuals develop language abilities, as it encompasses the interactive processes through which more knowledgeable peers or educators facilitate learning by breaking down complex tasks into manageable parts.
Sociocultural theory: Sociocultural theory is a framework that emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cultural context in the development of language and cognition. It suggests that learning is inherently social and that individuals acquire language through their interactions within cultural contexts. This perspective connects to various aspects of education, second language acquisition, and socialization processes, highlighting how language practices are influenced by societal norms and values.
Speech emergence: Speech emergence refers to a stage in second language acquisition where learners start to produce simple sentences and express their thoughts in the target language. This phase typically follows the pre-production stage and is marked by increased vocabulary and greater confidence in speaking, allowing learners to engage in more spontaneous and interactive conversations.
Stephen Krashen: Stephen Krashen is a prominent linguist and educational researcher known for his theories on second language acquisition, particularly his Input Hypothesis, which emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input in language learning. His work has profoundly influenced language teaching methodologies by advocating for naturalistic and immersive learning experiences, arguing that meaningful interaction in the target language is crucial for developing fluency and proficiency.
Transfer: Transfer refers to the influence that a person's first language has on the learning and use of a second language. This can manifest in various forms, including phonological, syntactic, and lexical patterns that learners carry over from their native language to the new language, impacting their pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.