5.3 Subordinate clauses and complex sentences

Types and Structure of Subordinate Clauses

Old English subordinate clauses let writers build complex sentences by attaching dependent ideas to a main clause. They show up in different forms, but the two most common are relative clauses (which give extra information about a noun) and adverbial clauses (which tell you when, why, where, or under what condition something happened). What makes them tricky is that they follow different word-order rules than main clauses, so recognizing them is essential for reading Old English accurately.

Types of Subordinate Clauses

Relative clauses add detail about a noun or pronoun in the main clause. They're introduced by relative pronouns:

• þe ("that") is the most common and general-purpose relative pronoun
• se ("which/who," masculine) and seo ("which/who," feminine) are demonstrative pronouns that can also function as relatives, agreeing in gender with the noun they refer back to

For example: Se cyning, þe his folc lufode, wæs god and rihtwis ("The king, who loved his people, was good and just"). Here þe introduces the relative clause and refers back to se cyning.

Adverbial clauses modify the verb in the main clause, telling you about time, reason, condition, and so on. They're introduced by subordinating conjunctions:

• þa ("when") for time
• ær ("before") and siððan ("after/since") for temporal sequence
• forþæm (also spelled forðæm) ("because") for reason
• gif ("if") for condition

Role of Conjunctions and Pronouns

Subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns do the same basic job: they signal that a dependent clause is starting and link it to the main clause. The difference is that relative pronouns refer back to a specific noun (their antecedent), while conjunctions simply mark the relationship between the two clauses (time, cause, condition, etc.).

One thing to watch for: þa can function as both a conjunction ("when") and an adverb ("then"). When þa starts a subordinate clause, the verb typically goes to the end. When it starts a main clause as an adverb, it often triggers subject-verb inversion. Context and word order are your best clues for telling the two apart.

Word Order in Subordinate Clauses

This is one of the most distinctive features of Old English syntax. In subordinate clauses, the finite verb tends to move to the end of the clause, unlike main clauses where the verb usually sits in second position (V2 order).

• Verb-final example: Ic wat þæt he strong is ("I know that he is strong"). The verb is comes at the end of the þæt-clause, not right after the subject.

When a subordinate clause comes before the main clause, the main clause often shows subject-verb inversion (the verb comes before the subject). This happens because the entire subordinate clause fills the first position, pushing the verb into second position:

• Gif he cymð, ic beo gearu ("If he comes, I will be ready"). Notice that in the subordinate clause (gif he cymð), the verb cymð sits at the end. In the main clause, the word order stays relatively straightforward here, but in many cases you'll see the verb jump ahead of the subject.

Verb-final order in subordinate clauses isn't an absolute rule. You'll encounter exceptions, especially in poetry or in later Old English texts where word order was becoming more flexible. But it's the strong default pattern, and recognizing it will help you parse complex sentences much more reliably.

Usage and Interpretation of Subordinate Clauses

Constructing Complex Sentences

To build a complex sentence in Old English, follow these steps:

1. Write your main clause with its normal word order (typically verb in second position).
2. Choose the right conjunction or relative pronoun to introduce the subordinate clause. Use þe / se / seo for relative clauses; use þa, gif, forþæm, etc. for adverbial clauses.
3. Place the finite verb at the end of the subordinate clause.
4. Position the subordinate clause either after the main clause or before it. If it comes before, expect the main clause to adjust its word order (often with subject-verb inversion).

Function of Subordinate Clauses

Relative clauses let you pack more information about a noun into a single sentence instead of using two separate ones:

Here the relative clause þe he getimbrode tells you something about þæt hus. Notice the verb getimbrode sits at the end of the clause.

Adverbial clauses set the scene or explain the circumstances around the main action:

The þa-clause establishes the time frame, and the verb com appears at the end of that clause. The main clause then follows with its own complete thought.

When you're reading Old English prose, spotting the conjunction or relative pronoun at the start of a clause and then scanning to the end for the verb is one of the most practical habits you can build. It turns what looks like a tangle of unfamiliar words into a structure you can actually follow.