3.4 Numerals and quantifiers

Numerals and Quantifiers in Old English

Old English used a decimal number system with both cardinal numbers (for counting quantities) and ordinal numbers (for showing position in a sequence). Numerals in Old English behave more like adjectives than in Modern English: the lower cardinals decline for gender and case, and ordinals follow weak adjective patterns. Quantifiers like fela (many) and eall (all) round out the system for expressing amounts.

Counting in Old English

Old English cardinals will look surprisingly familiar once you see them alongside their Modern English descendants. Here are the numbers 1–10:

Compound numbers were formed by stating the smaller number first, joined by ond (and). So "twenty-one" is ān ond twēntig, and "forty-four" is fēower ond fēowertig. This "ones before tens" pattern is the opposite of Modern English word order, though it survives in nursery-rhyme style ("four and twenty blackbirds").

Old English ordinals include forma (first), ōþer (second), þridda (third), fēorþa (fourth), and fīfta (fifth). Notice that ōþer originally meant "second," not "other" as in Modern English (though it carried both senses even in the Old English period).

Declension of Numerals

This is where Old English numerals differ most from Modern English. Cardinals 1–3 decline for gender and case, while numbers 4 and above are generally indeclinable.

ān (one) declines like a strong adjective. All three genders share the nominative singular form ān, but they diverge in other cases (accusative feminine āne, genitive masculine/neuter ānes, etc.). Because it declines like a strong adjective, you can apply the strong adjective endings you already know.

twā (two) has distinct nominative forms for each gender:

• Masculine: twēgen
• Feminine: twā
• Neuter: tū

þrēo (three) also varies by gender in the nominative:

• Masculine: þrīe
• Feminine: þrēo
• Neuter: þrēo

From fēower (four) onward, cardinal numbers do not change form for gender or case.

Ordinal numbers decline like weak adjectives. For example, forma (first):

• Masculine nominative singular: forma
• Feminine nominative singular: forme
• Neuter nominative singular: forme

Since ordinals follow the weak declension, they take the same endings as any weak adjective and typically appear with a demonstrative (e.g., se forma dæg, "the first day").

Quantifiers for Amounts

Quantifiers express non-specific amounts. Each one has its own grammatical behavior, so it's worth learning them individually.

• fela (many, much) is indeclinable, meaning it never changes form. It takes a noun in the genitive plural: fela manna = "many men" (literally "many of men"). This genitive construction is a common pattern to watch for.
• manig (many) declines like a strong adjective and takes its noun in the same case you'd expect from context: manig mann = "many a man."
• eall (all) also declines like a strong adjective. It agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case: eall þæt folc = "all the people."
• ǣlc (each, every) declines like a strong adjective: ǣlc mann = "each man" or "every man."
• nān (none, no) declines like a strong adjective: nān mann = "no man." This word is the ancestor of Modern English "none."

The key distinction to remember: fela is indeclinable and requires the genitive, while manig, eall, ǣlc, and nān all decline like strong adjectives and agree directly with their nouns.

Syntax of Numerical Phrases

In Old English, numerals and quantifiers generally precede the noun they modify, just as in Modern English.

Cardinals before nouns:

• þrēo dagas = "three days"
• fīf hund scipa = "five hundred ships"

Ordinals before nouns (usually with a demonstrative, since they decline weak):

• se forma dæg = "the first day"
• þā þriddan wucan = "the third week" (accusative/dative)

Quantifiers before nouns:

• fela geara = "many years" (genitive plural after fela)
• manig hūs = "many houses"
• eall sēo duguþ = "all the retinue"

The form ealles can function adverbially, meaning "entirely" or "altogether": ealles tō lytel = "altogether too little." This is a useful phrase to recognize in texts, since it doesn't modify a specific noun the way other quantifiers do.