Native American Studies Unit 5 ReviewReservation and Allotment Era

Historical Context

• Reservation and Allotment Era took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, following the Indian Wars and the forced relocation of many Native American tribes
• U.S. government aimed to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society and culture through policies of allotment and education
• Belief in the superiority of European-American culture and the idea that Native Americans needed to be "civilized" drove many of the policies of this era
• Westward expansion and the desire for Native American lands by settlers and corporations also contributed to the implementation of these policies
• Treaties made between the U.S. government and Native American tribes were often broken or renegotiated to the detriment of Native peoples
• Reservation system had already been established in the early to mid-19th century, confining Native American tribes to specific areas of land
• Dawes Act of 1887 marked the beginning of the Allotment Era, which aimed to break up communal tribal lands into individual allotments

Key Policies and Legislation

• Dawes Act (General Allotment Act) of 1887 authorized the President to survey Native American tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Native Americans
  • Allotments were typically 160 acres for each head of household and 80 acres for single persons over 18 years old
  • Surplus land after allotment was sold to non-Native settlers, resulting in significant land loss for Native American tribes
• Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 authorized the creation of Indian reservations in what is now Oklahoma
• Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 ended the practice of treating Native American tribes as independent nations and made them wards of the federal government
• Burke Act of 1906 amended the Dawes Act, granting U.S. citizenship to Native Americans who accepted allotments and were deemed "competent" by the Secretary of the Interior
• Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 ended allotment, restored some tribal lands, and encouraged tribal self-government
• Termination policies of the 1940s and 1950s sought to end federal recognition and support of Native American tribes, leading to further land loss and cultural disruption

Impact on Native American Lands

• Allotment policies led to significant land loss for Native American tribes, as surplus lands were sold to non-Native settlers and corporations
• Between 1887 and 1934, Native American landholdings decreased from approximately 138 million acres to 48 million acres
• Fragmentation of tribal lands made it difficult for Native Americans to maintain traditional land use practices and economies
• Allotment disrupted traditional communal land ownership and land use patterns, as individuals were assigned specific plots of land
• Reservation lands were often poor quality, lacking resources and infrastructure necessary for sustainable economic development
• Leasing of allotments to non-Native farmers and ranchers became common, as many Native Americans lacked the resources and knowledge to farm their allotted lands effectively
• Fractionation of allotments through inheritance led to further land loss and management difficulties, as ownership was divided among multiple heirs

Social and Cultural Consequences

• Assimilation policies aimed to erase Native American cultural identities and practices, replacing them with European-American culture
• Boarding schools, such as Carlisle Indian Industrial School, removed Native American children from their families and communities to be educated in European-American culture and language
  • Children were often forced to cut their hair, wear European-American clothing, and abandon their native languages and religious practices
• Allotment and assimilation policies disrupted traditional family and community structures, as individuals were encouraged to adopt nuclear family models and private property ownership
• Loss of land and resources led to increased poverty and dependence on government assistance for many Native American communities
• Suppression of Native American languages, religions, and cultural practices led to significant cultural loss and intergenerational trauma
• Breakdown of traditional social and political structures made it difficult for Native American communities to maintain cohesion and collective decision-making processes
• Forced relocation and confinement to reservations led to significant physical and mental health problems, including high rates of disease, malnutrition, and depression

Resistance and Adaptation

• Native American tribes and individuals resisted allotment and assimilation policies through various means, including legal challenges, political activism, and cultural preservation efforts
• Some Native Americans, such as author and activist Zitkala-Sa (Yankton Dakota), used their education and writing skills to advocate for Native American rights and criticize assimilation policies
• Ghost Dance movement of the late 19th century represented a spiritual and political response to the pressures of assimilation and land loss, seeking to restore Native American autonomy and cultural practices
• Native American tribes adapted to changing circumstances by finding ways to maintain cultural practices and identities, such as holding ceremonies in secret or incorporating new technologies into traditional art forms
• Some Native Americans used allotment to their advantage, such as leasing or selling their allotments for profit or using them to establish successful farms or ranches
• Intertribal organizations, such as the Society of American Indians (founded in 1911), brought together Native American leaders and activists to advocate for Native American rights and resist assimilation policies
• Tribal governments and leaders worked to maintain political sovereignty and negotiate with the federal government to protect tribal interests, despite the challenges posed by allotment and assimilation policies

Legacy and Long-Term Effects

• Allotment and assimilation policies have had lasting impacts on Native American communities, including ongoing land loss, poverty, and cultural disruption
• Fractionation of allotments continues to pose significant challenges for land management and economic development in many Native American communities
• Intergenerational trauma resulting from boarding school experiences and cultural suppression continues to affect Native American individuals and families
• Federal policies of termination and relocation in the mid-20th century further undermined tribal sovereignty and led to additional land loss and cultural disruption
• Native American activists and organizations, such as the American Indian Movement (AIM), have worked to reclaim tribal sovereignty, land rights, and cultural identities in the face of ongoing challenges
• Efforts to revitalize Native American languages and cultural practices have gained momentum in recent decades, with many tribes establishing language and cultural preservation programs
• Legal battles over land rights, treaty obligations, and tribal sovereignty continue to shape the relationship between Native American tribes and the U.S. government

Case Studies and Examples

• Dawes Act allotment of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation in Oklahoma resulted in the loss of over 3 million acres of tribal land by 1920
• Carlisle Indian Industrial School, founded in 1879, became a model for off-reservation boarding schools aimed at assimilating Native American children
• Hopi resistance to allotment and cultural suppression included the efforts of Hopi leaders such as Yukiuma and Tawaquaptewa to maintain traditional religious practices and resist sending children to boarding schools
• Navajo Nation's experience with livestock reduction in the 1930s, as part of the federal government's attempt to address overgrazing and soil erosion on the reservation, led to significant economic and cultural disruption
• Ojibwe author and activist Winona LaDuke has worked to reclaim tribal land rights and promote sustainable development, including the establishment of the White Earth Land Recovery Project in Minnesota
• Cobell v. Salazar class-action lawsuit, settled in 2009, addressed the federal government's mismanagement of Native American trust funds and resulted in a $3.4 billion settlement for Native American landowners
• Standing Rock Sioux Tribe's resistance to the Dakota Access Pipeline in 2016-2017 drew international attention to issues of tribal sovereignty, land rights, and environmental justice

Contemporary Relevance

• Ongoing efforts to address the legacy of allotment and assimilation policies include land buy-back programs, cultural revitalization initiatives, and legal challenges to treaty violations
• Native American communities continue to face significant challenges related to poverty, health disparities, and cultural loss, many of which can be traced back to the impacts of the Reservation and Allotment Era
• Debates over tribal sovereignty, land rights, and the federal trust responsibility continue to shape contemporary Native American politics and activism
• Recognition of the intergenerational trauma caused by boarding schools and cultural suppression has led to increased efforts to support healing and resilience in Native American communities
• Climate change and environmental degradation pose significant threats to Native American lands and traditional lifeways, highlighting the ongoing importance of land rights and environmental justice
• Movements such as Indigenous Peoples' Day and the Land Back campaign reflect ongoing efforts to challenge colonial legacies and assert Native American rights and identities in the contemporary context
• Collaborative efforts between Native American tribes, federal agencies, and non-profit organizations to address issues such as language revitalization, cultural preservation, and economic development demonstrate the ongoing resilience and adaptability of Native American communities in the face of historical and contemporary challenges