5.4 Tribal responses to reservation policies
3 min read•august 9, 2024
Native Americans faced harsh reservation policies but fought back creatively. They used spiritual practices, legal challenges, and to resist forced assimilation. The and were pivotal moments in this struggle.
Tribes adapted to new realities while maintaining their identities. They developed economic strategies, joined pan-Indian organizations, and strengthened tribal governance. These efforts laid the groundwork for increased and in later years.
Resistance and Preservation
Resistance Movements and Spiritual Practices
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- Native Americans organized resistance movements to oppose forced relocation and assimilation policies
- Ghost Dance movement emerged in 1890 as a spiritual practice promising Native American restoration
- Originated with Paiute prophet Wovoka, who claimed to have visions of a peaceful world without white settlers
- Spread rapidly among various tribes, including Lakota Sioux
- Emphasized traditional clothing, rituals, and belief in the return of deceased ancestors
- Wounded Knee Massacre resulted from U.S. government's fear of Ghost Dance movement
- U.S. Army killed over 250 Lakota Sioux at Wounded Knee Creek in 1890
- Marked the end of armed Native American resistance in the United States
Cultural Preservation Efforts
- Native Americans developed strategies to maintain traditional practices and languages
- played crucial role in preserving cultural knowledge and histories
- Secret ceremonies and rituals conducted to keep customs alive
- Native American boarding school students often practiced their cultures in secret
- Efforts to preserve native languages through oral transmission and later written documentation
- Traditional arts and crafts maintained as means of cultural expression and economic survival
- Included beadwork, pottery, basket weaving, and textile production
Legal Challenges and Treaty Rights
- Native American tribes pursued legal avenues to protect their rights and lands
- (1905) affirmed tribal fishing rights guaranteed by treaties
- (1903) challenged the legality of allotment policies
- Supreme Court ruled Congress had plenary power over Indian affairs, limiting
- (NARF) established in 1970 to provide legal assistance to tribes
- of 1975 increased tribal control over federal programs
Adaptation and Governance
Adaptation Strategies in Changing Environments
- Native Americans developed new economic strategies to survive on reservations
- Adoption of farming techniques suited to reservation lands
- Included dry farming methods and crop diversification
- Participation in wage labor jobs on and off reservations
- Included railroad construction, mining, and domestic service
- Entrepreneurial ventures emerged, such as tourism-based businesses
- Educational adaptations involved learning English and Western subjects while maintaining cultural identity
- Native Americans served in U.S. military, notably as Code Talkers in World Wars I and II
- Navajo Code Talkers used their language to create unbreakable military codes
Pan-Indian Organizations and Movements
- (NCAI) founded in 1944
- Focused on preserving tribal sovereignty and treaty rights
- (AIM) established in 1968
- Advocated for Native American civil rights and cultural revitalization
- Occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969-1971) brought national attention to Native American issues
- Native American activism influenced passage of of 1968
- Inter-tribal cooperation increased to address shared concerns and advocate for policy changes
Tribal Governance and Self-Determination
- of 1934 encouraged tribes to adopt written constitutions
- Promoted tribal self-government and ended allotment policies
- Tribes developed diverse governance structures, combining traditional and Western models
- emerged as key decision-making bodies on many reservations
- Some tribes maintained traditional leadership roles alongside elected officials
- Development of to handle internal legal matters
- undertaken by tribal governments
- Included natural resource management, casino gaming, and tourism
- Tribal colleges established to provide culturally relevant higher education
- founded in 1968 as first tribally controlled college
Key Terms to Review (19)
American Indian Movement: The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a civil rights organization founded in the late 1960s to address systemic issues facing Native Americans, including treaty rights, land reclamation, and social justice. AIM emerged as a response to the long history of oppression and neglect experienced by Indigenous peoples in the United States, advocating for political activism and cultural pride among Native Americans.
Cultural Preservation: Cultural preservation refers to the efforts made to maintain and protect the cultural heritage, practices, languages, and traditions of a community, particularly those that are at risk of being lost due to modernization, colonization, or assimilation. This process is crucial for Indigenous communities as it helps sustain their identity, history, and connection to their ancestral lands.
Cultural Revitalization: Cultural revitalization refers to the process of reaffirming and renewing cultural identities, traditions, languages, and practices that have been suppressed or diminished, often due to colonization or external influences. This concept is crucial in understanding how Indigenous communities reclaim their heritage and promote their unique cultural expressions in the face of historical trauma and modern challenges.
Diné College: Diné College is the first tribally controlled community college in the United States, established in 1968 to serve the educational needs of the Navajo Nation. It emphasizes Native American culture and languages while providing a range of academic programs, fostering a sense of identity and community empowerment among students. The college plays a crucial role in preserving Diné culture through education, promoting higher learning that respects and integrates indigenous values.
Economic development initiatives: Economic development initiatives refer to programs and strategies implemented by communities or governments aimed at improving economic conditions, creating jobs, and fostering sustainable growth. In the context of Native American tribes, these initiatives often focus on revitalizing local economies, enhancing infrastructure, and increasing access to resources to combat the impacts of historical policies that have hindered economic progress.
Ghost Dance Movement: The Ghost Dance Movement was a spiritual and religious revival among Native American tribes in the late 19th century, particularly in the 1880s and 1890s, that aimed to restore traditional ways of life and bring about a new world of peace and abundance. This movement arose in response to the devastating impacts of colonization and reservation policies, which disrupted Native cultures, leading to a search for hope and renewal through spiritual practices.
Indian Civil Rights Act: The Indian Civil Rights Act, enacted in 1968, extends certain constitutional rights to individuals living on Native American reservations, granting them protections similar to those found in the Bill of Rights. This legislation aimed to address civil liberties violations and enhance the legal status of tribal members, while also navigating the complex balance between federal authority and tribal sovereignty.
Indian Reorganization Act: The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), enacted in 1934, aimed to reverse the assimilationist policies of the Dawes Act and restore some degree of self-governance and tribal sovereignty to Native American tribes. This legislation sought to promote the cultural identity of Native Americans while allowing tribes to create their own governments and manage their own affairs, impacting various aspects of Native American identity and governance.
Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act: The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, enacted in 1975, allows tribes to take greater control over their own affairs, particularly in education and social services. This act empowers tribes to contract with the federal government to manage programs that were previously administered by federal agencies, which enhances tribal sovereignty and self-governance.
Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock was a significant Supreme Court case decided in 1903 that upheld the authority of the federal government to unilaterally alter treaties with Native American tribes. This decision emphasized the legal precedence of federal power over tribal sovereignty, particularly in the context of land allotments and reservation policies. The ruling has had lasting implications for the relationship between the U.S. government and Native American tribes, particularly concerning their rights and land entitlements.
National Congress of American Indians: The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) is the oldest and largest national organization representing tribal governments and Indigenous peoples in the United States. Established in 1944, NCAI works to advocate for the rights and sovereignty of Native American tribes, address social justice issues, and promote cultural preservation and community development.
Native American Rights Fund: The Native American Rights Fund (NARF) is a non-profit organization founded in 1970 that provides legal assistance to Native American tribes, organizations, and individuals in order to protect their rights and sovereignty. It plays a crucial role in addressing legal issues related to land, resources, and cultural preservation, while also advocating for the rights of Native Americans in a variety of contexts.
Oral Traditions: Oral traditions are the stories, histories, and cultural practices passed down verbally from one generation to another. They are essential for preserving the identity and heritage of Indigenous communities, serving as a means of transmitting knowledge, values, and historical narratives that shape their worldview. Oral traditions often respond to significant events, such as colonization or changes in social structures, reflecting how communities navigate challenges while maintaining their cultural integrity.
Self-determination: Self-determination refers to the right of individuals and communities, particularly Indigenous peoples, to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development. This concept is pivotal for understanding the autonomy and governance of Native American tribes, connecting to their historical struggles and ongoing efforts for sovereignty and recognition.
Tribal Councils: Tribal councils are governing bodies composed of elected representatives from a Native American tribe, responsible for making decisions on behalf of the tribe and managing its affairs. These councils serve as a vital mechanism for self-governance, allowing tribes to assert their rights and navigate the complexities of governance in both traditional and contemporary contexts. Their role is crucial in shaping the political, social, and economic landscape of the tribal community, particularly in response to federal policies and the preservation of kinship systems.
Tribal courts: Tribal courts are legal systems established by Native American tribes to adjudicate disputes, enforce tribal laws, and uphold the rights of tribal members. These courts play a crucial role in maintaining tribal sovereignty and provide a means for tribes to exercise self-governance over their internal affairs, especially in response to historical reservation policies and movements advocating for Native American rights.
Tribal sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves and make decisions regarding their internal affairs without external interference. This concept is foundational for understanding the relationship between Native American tribes and the federal government, as it highlights the rights of tribes to self-determination and self-governance.
United States v. Winans: United States v. Winans was a landmark Supreme Court case from 1905 that addressed the fishing rights of Native Americans on their reserved lands. The decision emphasized the importance of respecting treaties made with Indigenous tribes, recognizing their rights to use traditional fishing areas even when state laws conflicted. This case is significant as it illustrates tribal responses to reservation policies and the struggle for Indigenous sovereignty.
Wounded Knee Massacre: The Wounded Knee Massacre was a tragic event that occurred on December 29, 1890, when U.S. Army soldiers killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. This massacre is often seen as a brutal end to the Indian Wars and symbolizes the extreme violence used by the U.S. government against Native American tribes in response to their resistance to reservation policies and encroachment by settlers.