Immigration Policies
Homestead Act and Settlement of the West
The Dominion Lands Act of 1872 (commonly called the Homestead Act) was the Canadian government's primary tool for populating the Western Prairies. Beyond simple settlement, the Act served a strategic purpose: asserting Canadian sovereignty over the West and preventing American annexation of the territory.
The terms were straightforward:
- Any male farmer over 21 could claim 160 acres of land
- He paid a $10 registration fee and agreed to cultivate at least 40 acres and build a permanent dwelling within three years
- Thousands of settlers took up the offer, primarily from Eastern Canada, the United States, and Europe (especially the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia)
Restrictive Policies Towards Chinese Immigration
While Canada actively recruited European settlers, it took the opposite approach with Chinese immigrants. This happened despite the enormous contributions Chinese workers had made building the Canadian Pacific Railway.
- The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 imposed a $50 head tax on every Chinese person entering Canada
- The tax increased to $100 in 1900 and then $500 in 1903, the equivalent of roughly two years' wages for a Chinese laborer. This made immigration financially impossible for most.
- The underlying motivations were anti-Chinese racism and fears of economic competition from Chinese workers willing to accept lower wages
- The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1923 went further, banning most Chinese immigration outright (with narrow exceptions for merchants, diplomats, and students). It remained in effect until 1947, separating families and communities for decades.
Clifford Sifton and Selective Immigration
Clifford Sifton served as Minister of the Interior from 1896 to 1905, and his immigration policies left a lasting mark on Western Canada's demographic makeup. His goal was to fill the Prairies with productive farmers as quickly as possible.
Sifton had a clear hierarchy of who he considered "desirable":
- Preferred immigrants: settlers from the United States, Britain, and Northern Europe with farming experience who could assimilate into Anglo-Canadian culture
- Less welcome: immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, whom Sifton viewed as less compatible with Canadian society
- The overall effect was a policy framework that favored white, Protestant, agriculturally skilled immigrants, shaping the ethnic composition of the West for generations
Immigration Waves
Ukrainian Immigration to Canada
The first major wave of Ukrainian immigration occurred between 1891 and 1914, bringing approximately 170,000 Ukrainians to Canada. Several factors drove this migration:
- Push factors: economic hardship, overpopulation, and political oppression in their homeland (then divided between Austria-Hungary and Russia)
- Pull factors: Canada's offer of free land through the Homestead Act and the opportunity to maintain their cultural identity in relatively self-governing communities
Ukrainian settlers concentrated in the Prairies (Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba), where they established tight-knit farming communities. They maintained their language, Orthodox and Catholic religious traditions, and cultural practices, contributing significantly to the multicultural character of Western Canada.
The Great Migration from Britain
A significant wave of immigration from the British Isles (England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland) arrived in Canada between roughly 1815 and 1850. Note that this predates Confederation, but it shaped the Canada that existed by the Macdonald era.
- Migrants were motivated by economic hardship, crop failures (including the Irish famine), and the promise of better opportunities in the colonies
- The British government actively encouraged emigration as a way to relieve poverty and social unrest at home
- These settlers played a central role in shaping Canada's political, economic, and cultural institutions, reinforcing the country's deep ties to the British Empire
Population Shifts
Urbanization and the Growth of Cities
Industrialization in the late 19th century pulled Canadians off farms and into cities. Rural Canadians and new immigrants alike were drawn by the prospect of factory, mill, and service-industry jobs.
The numbers tell the story clearly:
- Canada's urban population grew from 13% in 1851 to 35% by 1901
- Montreal grew from 57,000 to over 267,000 in that same period
- Toronto grew from 30,000 to over 208,000
- Winnipeg also expanded rapidly as a hub for Western settlement and the railway
This growth came with serious problems. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and the spread of diseases like typhoid and cholera became urgent concerns in fast-growing cities. These conditions eventually prompted reforms in urban planning and public health, though meaningful improvements were slow to arrive.