Key Political Figures
Architects of Confederation
John A. Macdonald, a Conservative politician from Canada West (Ontario), was the driving force behind the Confederation negotiations and became Canada's first Prime Minister. He was a skilled political strategist who worked to bridge differences between the various colonies and factions. Macdonald believed a strong central government was necessary for the new nation to hold together, and he pushed for federal powers that would keep the provinces unified rather than pulling apart.
George-Étienne Cartier, a Conservative politician from Canada East (Quebec), was Macdonald's most important ally. Without Cartier, Confederation likely would not have happened, because French Canadian support was essential to the project. Cartier worked to ensure the new constitution protected the French language, the Catholic religion, and Quebec's distinct legal system (the Civil Code). He convinced skeptical French Canadians that joining Confederation would actually safeguard their culture better than the existing arrangement, since Quebec would gain its own provincial legislature with control over local matters.
Influential Supporters of Confederation
George Brown, a Reform (Liberal) politician and founder of the Toronto Globe newspaper, had long been a political rival of Macdonald. Brown initially opposed working with Conservatives, but he joined the Great Coalition in 1864 because he saw Confederation as the only way to break the political deadlock between Canada West and Canada East. He played a significant role at the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences, advocating for representation by population in the lower house, which would give Canada West more seats to reflect its larger population. Brown left the Coalition before Confederation was finalized, but his early participation was critical to getting negotiations off the ground.
Charles Tupper, a Conservative politician from Nova Scotia, was the key figure pushing his colony toward union. He believed Confederation would bring economic benefits to Nova Scotia through increased trade and the construction of an intercolonial railway linking the Maritimes to central Canada. Tupper faced fierce opposition from anti-Confederates in Nova Scotia, led by Joseph Howe, who argued the province was being dragged into a union against its will. Tupper pushed Confederation through the Nova Scotia legislature without a direct public vote on the question.
Samuel Leonard Tilley, a Liberal-Conservative politician from New Brunswick, supported Confederation and played a key role in persuading his colony to join. He believed union would provide greater security and prosperity for New Brunswick. Tilley is traditionally credited with suggesting the term "Dominion" for the new country, inspired by Psalm 72:8 ("He shall have dominion also from sea to sea").
Confederation Conferences
Charlottetown Conference (September 1864)
The Charlottetown Conference was originally called so the Maritime colonies (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) could discuss uniting among themselves. Delegates from the Province of Canada showed up and proposed something much bigger: a federal union of all British North America.
The Canadians made a persuasive case, and by the end of the conference, the Maritime delegates agreed to explore the larger union idea. No final decisions were made at Charlottetown, but it laid the groundwork for the more detailed Quebec Conference that followed just weeks later.
Quebec Conference (October 1864)
This was where the real details got hammered out. Delegates from the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland met to negotiate the structure of the new country.
The conference produced the Seventy-Two Resolutions, which outlined:
- The division of powers between federal and provincial governments
- Representation in Parliament, including rep by pop in the House of Commons and equal regional representation in the Senate
- The structure and appointment process for the Senate
- Financial arrangements, including federal assumption of provincial debts
These resolutions formed the basis for the British North America Act. Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland ultimately decided not to join at this stage, largely over concerns about representation and financial terms.
London Conference (December 1866 – February 1867)
Delegates from the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick traveled to London, England, to finalize the terms of union with the British government. They worked with British officials to draft the British North America Act, making minor adjustments to the Quebec Resolutions to address Maritime concerns.
The British North America Act received royal assent on March 29, 1867, and came into effect on July 1, 1867, creating the Dominion of Canada with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.
Political Alliances
Great Coalition (1864)
The Great Coalition was the unlikely political alliance that made Confederation possible. It brought together three rival factions from the Province of Canada:
- The Conservatives (led by John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier)
- The Clear Grits / Reformers (led by George Brown)
These groups had been bitter opponents for years, and their rivalry was a major reason the Province of Canada's government kept collapsing. Between 1854 and 1864, the province cycled through multiple short-lived governments because neither side could maintain a stable majority.
The Coalition formed specifically to pursue Confederation as a solution to this deadlock. By uniting behind a common goal, these political rivals created a government stable enough to negotiate effectively with the Maritime colonies and the British government. The Coalition showed that the political will for union existed, even among people who disagreed on almost everything else.