ap environmental science live cram sessions 2020 study guides

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Sustainability involves meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
  • Includes environmental, economic, and social dimensions
  • Requires balancing resource use with conservation and regeneration
• Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth at all levels, from genes to ecosystems
  • Includes species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity
  • Provides essential ecosystem services and contributes to ecological resilience
• Ecological footprint measures the impact of human activities on the environment in terms of the area of biologically productive land and water required to produce the goods consumed and to assimilate the wastes generated
  • Calculated by assessing resource consumption and waste generation
  • Can be used to compare the sustainability of different lifestyles and countries
• Greenhouse effect is a natural process that traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere, primarily due to the presence of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor)
  • Enhanced greenhouse effect caused by human activities (burning fossil fuels, deforestation) leads to global warming and climate change
• Renewable resources can be replenished naturally over time (solar, wind, hydro, geothermal)
  • Have lower environmental impacts compared to non-renewable resources
  • Require sustainable management to prevent overexploitation
• Non-renewable resources are finite and cannot be replenished on a human timescale (fossil fuels, minerals)
  • Extraction and use often have significant environmental impacts (air and water pollution, habitat destruction)
• Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems (provisioning, regulating, cultural, supporting)
  • Examples include food production, water purification, climate regulation, and recreation
  • Often undervalued in economic decision-making

Environmental Challenges Addressed

• Climate change caused by the enhanced greenhouse effect, leading to rising temperatures, sea levels, and extreme weather events
  • Impacts on ecosystems, agriculture, human health, and infrastructure
  • Requires mitigation (reducing greenhouse gas emissions) and adaptation (preparing for impacts)
• Deforestation driven by agriculture, logging, and urbanization, resulting in biodiversity loss, soil erosion, and carbon emissions
  • Threatens ecosystem services and livelihoods of forest-dependent communities
  • Can be addressed through sustainable forest management, reforestation, and reducing deforestation drivers
• Air pollution from industrial emissions, transportation, and household sources, causing respiratory illnesses and environmental damage
  • Includes particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide
  • Can be mitigated through emission controls, clean technologies, and behavioral changes
• Water scarcity and pollution affecting freshwater availability and quality for human use and ecosystems
  • Caused by overextraction, inefficient use, and contamination from agriculture, industry, and human waste
  • Requires integrated water resource management, pollution prevention, and water conservation
• Biodiversity loss due to habitat destruction, overexploitation, invasive species, and climate change
  • Threatens ecosystem functioning, resilience, and services
  • Can be addressed through habitat protection, sustainable use, and species conservation efforts
• Soil degradation from erosion, salinization, and nutrient depletion, impacting agricultural productivity and food security
  • Caused by unsustainable land management practices and climate change
  • Requires soil conservation measures, sustainable agriculture, and land restoration
• Waste management challenges, including solid waste, plastic pollution, and electronic waste
  • Leads to environmental contamination, health risks, and resource depletion
  • Can be addressed through waste reduction, recycling, and proper disposal methods

Scientific Principles and Theories

• Ecosystem ecology studies the interactions between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of ecosystems
  • Includes energy flow, nutrient cycling, and ecological succession
  • Helps understand ecosystem functioning, resilience, and response to disturbances
• Thermodynamics explains energy transfer and transformation in systems, including ecosystems
  • First law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another
  • Second law of thermodynamics states that entropy (disorder) tends to increase in closed systems
• Biogeochemical cycles describe the movement of essential elements (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, water) through ecosystems
  • Involve biotic and abiotic processes, such as photosynthesis, decomposition, and weathering
  • Human activities can disrupt these cycles, leading to environmental problems (eutrophication, climate change)
• Population ecology examines the dynamics of populations, including growth, distribution, and interactions with other species
  • Includes concepts such as carrying capacity, density-dependence, and population growth models (exponential, logistic)
  • Helps predict population responses to environmental changes and management strategies
• Island biogeography theory explains the factors influencing species richness on islands and isolated habitats
  • Considers island size, distance from mainland, and colonization-extinction dynamics
  • Applies to conservation planning, such as the design of protected areas and habitat corridors
• Ecological niche concept describes the role and position of a species within an ecosystem
  • Includes the resources a species uses, its habitat preferences, and interactions with other species
  • Helps understand species coexistence, competition, and potential for invasions
• Trophic levels and food webs represent the feeding relationships and energy transfer between organisms in an ecosystem
  • Includes producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), and decomposers
  • Helps analyze the impacts of disturbances and species loss on ecosystem functioning

Data Analysis and Interpretation

• Graphical representations (line graphs, bar charts, pie charts) used to visualize and communicate environmental data
  • Choosing appropriate graph types based on data characteristics and research questions
  • Interpreting trends, patterns, and relationships from graphs
• Statistical analysis (mean, median, standard deviation) used to summarize and compare environmental data sets
  • Calculating and interpreting descriptive statistics
  • Using statistical tests to determine significance of differences or relationships
• Spatial analysis using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to analyze and map environmental data
  • Overlaying and manipulating spatial data layers (land cover, elevation, climate)
  • Identifying spatial patterns, hotspots, and correlations
• Remote sensing data from satellites and aerial imagery used to monitor environmental changes over large areas
  • Interpreting and classifying land cover, vegetation health, and other environmental variables
  • Detecting changes over time and assessing impacts of human activities
• Environmental indicators used to measure and track the state of the environment and progress towards sustainability goals
  • Examples include air and water quality indices, biodiversity indicators, and ecological footprint
  • Selecting and interpreting appropriate indicators for different environmental issues and scales
• Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) used to evaluate the environmental impacts of products or processes throughout their life cycle
  • Identifying and quantifying inputs, outputs, and environmental burdens at each stage (raw material extraction, manufacturing, use, disposal)
  • Comparing the environmental performance of different products or design choices
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) used to predict and mitigate the potential environmental impacts of proposed projects or policies
  • Scoping, baseline studies, impact prediction, and mitigation planning
  • Incorporating public participation and decision-making in the EIA process

Case Studies and Real-World Applications

• Sustainable urban planning in Curitiba, Brazil, integrating transportation, land use, and green spaces
  • Implementing Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system and pedestrian-friendly urban design
  • Resulting in reduced traffic congestion, improved air quality, and increased green space per capita
• Ecosystem-based fisheries management in the Gulf of Maine, USA, balancing conservation and sustainable use of marine resources
  • Establishing marine protected areas and catch limits based on scientific assessments
  • Engaging stakeholders in co-management and decision-making processes
• Community-based forest management in Nepal, empowering local communities to manage and benefit from forest resources
  • Forming community forest user groups and developing sustainable forest management plans
  • Resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity, and livelihood opportunities
• Circular economy initiatives in the European Union, aiming to minimize waste and maximize resource efficiency
  • Implementing extended producer responsibility schemes and eco-design regulations
  • Promoting waste prevention, reuse, and recycling through economic incentives and awareness campaigns
• Renewable energy transition in Germany (Energiewende), phasing out nuclear and fossil fuels in favor of renewable sources
  • Setting ambitious targets for renewable energy share and energy efficiency
  • Investing in research, development, and deployment of solar, wind, and bioenergy technologies
• Agroforestry practices in the Sahel region of Africa, combining tree planting with crop cultivation to restore degraded land
  • Planting nitrogen-fixing trees (Faidherbia albida) in crop fields to improve soil fertility and water retention
  • Providing multiple benefits, such as increased crop yields, fuelwood, and carbon sequestration
• Integrated water resource management in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia, balancing competing water uses and environmental flows
  • Establishing a basin-wide water allocation plan and water trading scheme
  • Monitoring and adapting to changing water availability and ecosystem health

Problem-Solving Strategies

• Systems thinking approach, considering the interconnections and feedback loops between environmental, social, and economic systems
  • Identifying key system components, relationships, and leverage points for intervention
  • Developing holistic and integrated solutions that address root causes rather than symptoms
• Adaptive management, a flexible and iterative approach to environmental decision-making under uncertainty
  • Setting clear objectives, monitoring outcomes, and adjusting strategies based on learning and feedback
  • Incorporating stakeholder participation and knowledge co-production in the management process
• Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) for evaluating and prioritizing environmental management options
  • Defining criteria (environmental, social, economic) and assigning weights based on stakeholder preferences
  • Scoring and ranking options based on their performance across multiple criteria
• Scenario planning, exploring alternative future pathways and their implications for environmental management
  • Developing plausible and contrasting scenarios based on key drivers and uncertainties
  • Assessing the robustness and flexibility of strategies across different scenarios
• Participatory approaches, engaging stakeholders in environmental problem-solving and decision-making
  • Using methods such as citizen science, community mapping, and deliberative forums
  • Incorporating diverse knowledge, values, and perspectives in the problem-solving process
• Nature-based solutions, harnessing ecosystem services and natural processes to address environmental challenges
  • Examples include wetland restoration for flood control, urban green infrastructure for stormwater management, and coastal vegetation for erosion control
  • Providing co-benefits for biodiversity, human well-being, and climate change adaptation
• Life cycle thinking, considering the environmental impacts of products and services throughout their entire life cycle
  • Identifying hotspots and opportunities for improvement at each stage (design, production, use, end-of-life)
  • Applying tools such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and eco-design to minimize environmental burdens

Environmental Policy and Regulations

• International agreements and conventions, setting global frameworks for environmental protection and sustainable development
  • Examples include the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Basel Convention on hazardous waste
  • Establishing common goals, principles, and mechanisms for international cooperation and implementation
• National environmental laws and regulations, setting standards and requirements for environmental protection within countries
  • Examples include the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and the Endangered Species Act in the United States
  • Defining environmental quality objectives, emission limits, and management practices for different sectors and activities
• Economic instruments, using market-based mechanisms to incentivize environmentally friendly behavior and internalize environmental costs
  • Examples include carbon taxes, cap-and-trade systems, and payments for ecosystem services
  • Harnessing price signals and economic incentives to drive sustainable production and consumption patterns
• Environmental impact assessment (EIA) regulations, requiring the assessment and mitigation of potential environmental impacts of proposed projects and policies
  • Defining the scope, procedures, and public participation requirements for EIA processes
  • Ensuring that environmental considerations are integrated into decision-making and project design
• Environmental justice policies, addressing the disproportionate environmental burdens and decision-making power of marginalized communities
  • Examples include the Executive Order 12898 on Environmental Justice in the United States
  • Promoting fair treatment, meaningful involvement, and equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens
• Multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), fostering regional and global cooperation on transboundary environmental issues
  • Examples include the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and the Minamata Convention on Mercury
  • Setting specific targets, timelines, and compliance mechanisms for addressing shared environmental challenges
• Voluntary environmental initiatives, encouraging businesses and organizations to adopt sustainable practices beyond legal requirements
  • Examples include eco-labeling schemes, green procurement policies, and corporate sustainability reporting
  • Leveraging market forces and stakeholder pressure to drive continuous improvement in environmental performance

Exam Prep Tips and Tricks

• Review key concepts and definitions regularly, using flashcards, mind maps, or summary sheets
  • Focus on understanding the relationships between concepts and their practical applications
  • Create your own examples or case studies to illustrate and contextualize the concepts
• Practice data analysis and interpretation skills using real-world environmental datasets
  • Work with different types of graphs, charts, and maps to extract insights and trends
  • Apply statistical concepts and tools to analyze and interpret data patterns and relationships
• Engage with current environmental news and issues, relating them to the concepts and theories learned in class
  • Read scientific articles, policy briefs, and news reports on relevant environmental topics
  • Discuss and debate these issues with classmates or study groups to deepen your understanding and critical thinking
• Develop a study schedule and stick to it, allocating sufficient time for each topic and skill area
  • Break down larger topics into smaller, manageable chunks and set specific learning objectives for each study session
  • Use active learning techniques, such as summarizing, questioning, and teaching others, to reinforce your understanding
• Collaborate with classmates through study groups, peer teaching, and group projects
  • Share knowledge, insights, and resources with each other to enhance collective learning
  • Provide constructive feedback and support to help each other improve and stay motivated
• Practice with past exam questions and sample problems, focusing on understanding the problem-solving process and strategies
  • Analyze the question requirements, identify relevant concepts and data, and apply appropriate problem-solving approaches
  • Review and reflect on your answers, identifying areas for improvement and seeking feedback from teachers or peers
• Develop effective test-taking strategies, such as time management, prioritization, and stress management
  • Allocate time for each question based on its complexity and point value, leaving sufficient time for review
  • Start with easier questions to build confidence and momentum, then tackle more challenging ones
  • Practice relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing or mindfulness, to manage stress and maintain focus during the exam