US History – 1865 to Present Unit 9 Review: Civil Rights & Great Society (1954-1968)

Key Events and Timeline

• 1954: Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional
• 1955: Montgomery Bus Boycott began after Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white passenger, lasted 381 days until segregation on public buses was ruled unconstitutional
• 1957: Little Rock Nine integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas amid violent opposition
  • President Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce desegregation
• 1960: Greensboro sit-ins at Woolworth's lunch counter sparked a wave of similar protests across the South
• 1961: Freedom Rides challenged segregation in interstate bus travel
• 1963: March on Washington where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech
  • Birmingham Campaign led to desegregation of public accommodations in the city
• 1964: Civil Rights Act signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin
• 1965: Voting Rights Act passed, banning discriminatory voting practices and ensuring voting rights for African Americans
  • Selma to Montgomery marches brought attention to the issue of voting rights

Major Civil Rights Movements

• Civil Rights Movement sought to end racial discrimination and segregation against African Americans
  • Employed tactics of nonviolent civil disobedience (sit-ins, boycotts, marches)
  • Focused on desegregation, voting rights, and ending discriminatory practices
• Black Power Movement emphasized racial pride, self-sufficiency, and political and economic empowerment for African Americans
  • Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam advocated for black nationalism and self-defense
  • Black Panther Party formed to challenge police brutality and provide community services
• Chicano Movement fought for the rights and empowerment of Mexican Americans
  • Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta led the United Farm Workers union to improve working conditions for agricultural laborers
• American Indian Movement (AIM) advocated for Native American rights and sovereignty
  • Occupied Alcatraz Island in 1969 to demand the return of unused federal lands to Native tribes
• Women's Movement, also known as Second-Wave Feminism, fought for gender equality and women's rights
  • National Organization for Women (NOW) formed to push for equal pay, reproductive rights, and an end to gender discrimination

Legal Landmarks and Court Decisions

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson's "separate but equal" doctrine
• Hernandez v. Texas (1954) extended equal protection under the 14th Amendment to Mexican Americans, recognizing them as a distinct class
• Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964) upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, affirming Congress's power to ban racial discrimination in public accommodations
• Loving v. Virginia (1967) struck down state laws banning interracial marriage as unconstitutional
• Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) upheld affirmative action in college admissions but ruled against strict racial quotas

Key Figures and Leaders

• Martin Luther King Jr., Baptist minister and prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement, advocated for nonviolent civil disobedience
  • Played a key role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, Birmingham Campaign, and March on Washington
• Rosa Parks, civil rights activist whose refusal to give up her bus seat to a white passenger sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott
• Malcolm X, influential Black Muslim leader who initially advocated for black separatism and self-defense before embracing a more inclusive vision
• Fannie Lou Hamer, civil rights activist who fought for voting rights and co-founded the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
• Cesar Chavez, labor leader and civil rights activist who co-founded the National Farm Workers Association (later United Farm Workers)
• Betty Friedan, feminist writer and activist, authored "The Feminine Mystique" and co-founded the National Organization for Women (NOW)

Great Society Programs and Initiatives

• Economic Opportunity Act (1964) established various anti-poverty programs
  • Job Corps provided vocational training for young adults
  • VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America) was a domestic version of the Peace Corps
• Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965) increased federal funding for public education, particularly in low-income areas
• Medicare and Medicaid (1965) provided health insurance for the elderly and low-income individuals, respectively
• Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) formed in 1965 to address housing needs and urban development
• National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) and National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) established in 1965 to support and fund cultural initiatives

Social and Cultural Impact

• Desegregation of public spaces (schools, transportation, accommodations) led to increased interaction between races
• Affirmative action policies aimed to address historical inequalities and increase diversity in education and employment
• Black Pride movement celebrated African American culture, history, and identity
  • "Black is Beautiful" slogan promoted positive self-image and natural beauty standards
• Feminist movement challenged traditional gender roles and fought for women's liberation
  • Increased focus on reproductive rights, equal pay, and combating gender discrimination
• Counterculture of the 1960s rejected traditional values and embraced experimentation, political activism, and alternative lifestyles
  • Hippie subculture emphasized peace, love, and personal freedom

Opposition and Challenges

• White resistance to desegregation and civil rights reforms, sometimes violent (KKK, Citizens' Councils)
  • Massive Resistance in Southern states aimed to block integration of public schools
• Political opposition from conservatives who viewed Great Society programs as government overreach and wasteful spending
• Backlash against affirmative action, with critics arguing it constituted "reverse discrimination"
• Tensions within civil rights organizations over strategies and goals (nonviolence vs. militancy, integration vs. separatism)
• Urban riots in the late 1960s (Watts, Detroit, Newark) reflected frustration with ongoing poverty and inequality in African American communities

Legacy and Ongoing Issues

• Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act were landmark legislative achievements that dismantled legal segregation and ensured voting rights
  • However, de facto segregation and racial inequalities persist in areas such as housing, education, and criminal justice
• Great Society programs expanded the social safety net and reduced poverty
  • Critics argue that they fostered dependency and failed to address the root causes of poverty
• Affirmative action remains a contentious issue, with ongoing debates over its effectiveness and fairness
• Continued struggle for racial justice and equality, as evidenced by the Black Lives Matter movement and protests against police brutality
• Persistent gender wage gap and underrepresentation of women in leadership positions
  • #MeToo movement has brought renewed attention to sexual harassment and assault