9.1 Brown v. Board of Education and School Desegregation
4 min read•july 31, 2024
The ruling in 1954 marked a turning point in the Movement. By declaring school segregation unconstitutional, the Supreme Court set the stage for broader challenges to racial discrimination in American society.
Despite the landmark decision, many Southern states resisted desegregation efforts. This resistance sparked further civil rights activism and federal intervention, ultimately leading to significant changes in education and beyond during the 1950s and 1960s.
Brown v. Board: Key Arguments and Outcomes
The Landmark Supreme Court Decision
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- The Brown v. Board of Education case was a landmark Supreme Court decision in 1954 that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional
- The case was brought by the Legal Defense and Educational Fund, with serving as the lead attorney for the plaintiffs
- The plaintiffs argued that segregated schools violated the of the Fourteenth Amendment, which guarantees equal protection under the law
Unanimous Ruling and Rejection of "Separate but Equal"
- The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" and that segregation in public schools violated the Constitution
- The Court rejected the "" doctrine established in (1896), which had previously allowed for in public facilities
- The Brown decision paved the way for the desegregation of public schools and other public facilities throughout the United States, setting a precedent for future civil rights legislation and court decisions
Resistance to School Desegregation
Massive Resistance and Segregationist Tactics
- Despite the Supreme Court's ruling in Brown, many Southern states and school districts resisted desegregation efforts, leading to a period known as ""
- Some states, such as Virginia, closed public schools rather than integrate them, while others implemented "pupil placement laws" to maintain de facto segregation
- White citizens' councils and other segregationist organizations formed to oppose desegregation and intimidate civil rights activists, using tactics such as economic pressure, propaganda, and violence
Federal Enforcement and Civil Rights Strategies
- The federal government and civil rights organizations employed various strategies to enforce school desegregation
- The NAACP and other civil rights groups filed lawsuits to challenge segregation and force compliance with the Brown decision, such as (1958) and (1964)
- President sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957 to protect the "" and ensure their admission to Central High School, demonstrating the federal government's commitment to enforcing desegregation
- The authorized the federal government to withhold funding from schools that practiced segregation, providing a powerful incentive for desegregation and enabling the Department of Justice to file desegregation lawsuits
Gradual and Ongoing Process
- The process of desegregation was often gradual and faced ongoing resistance, with many schools remaining segregated or resegregating in the following decades
- Some school districts implemented "freedom of choice" plans or engaged in "white flight" to suburban areas, perpetuating de facto segregation
- The Supreme Court's decision in Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) required school districts to take affirmative steps to eliminate segregation "root and branch," accelerating the pace of desegregation in the late 1960s and early 1970s
Brown's Impact on Civil Rights and Society
Catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement
- The Brown decision was a significant catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement, as it demonstrated that the Supreme Court was willing to challenge racial segregation and discrimination
- The ruling inspired further legal challenges and direct action campaigns against segregation in other areas of American life, such as public transportation, housing, and voting rights
- The (1955-1956) and the Greensboro sit-ins (1960) were notable examples of direct action protests that built upon the momentum of the Brown decision, challenging segregation in public transportation and public accommodations, respectively
Far-Reaching Effects on American Society and Education
- The decision had far-reaching effects on American society and education
- It challenged long-held beliefs about race and inequality, forcing Americans to confront the reality of racial discrimination and its impact on educational opportunities
- The ruling contributed to the gradual desegregation of public schools, although the process was often slow and uneven, with some districts achieving more success than others
- The Brown decision also influenced the desegregation of other public facilities and spaces, such as parks, libraries, and swimming pools, as civil rights activists and legal challenges extended the principles of Brown to other areas of public life
Complex Legacy and Ongoing Challenges
- The legacy of the Brown decision remains complex, as many schools and communities continue to grapple with issues of racial segregation, educational inequity, and the persistent achievement gap between white and minority students
- De facto segregation, caused by factors such as housing patterns and school district boundaries, continues to be a challenge in many communities
- The Brown decision laid the groundwork for subsequent efforts to promote educational equity, such as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, but the goal of truly equal educational opportunities remains elusive
Key Terms to Review (20)
14th Amendment: The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, is a crucial part of the United States Constitution that grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees equal protection under the law. It was designed to secure the rights of former slaves following the Civil War and laid the groundwork for future civil rights advancements, affecting various social and legal developments over time.
Brown v. Board of Education: Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, effectively overturning the 'separate but equal' doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896. This case was a major turning point in the civil rights movement, as it set the stage for further legal challenges against racial discrimination and ignited widespread activism aimed at desegregation across the United States.
Civil Disobedience: Civil disobedience is the active, nonviolent refusal to obey certain laws, demands, or commands of a government, aimed at highlighting injustice and prompting change. This form of protest has played a crucial role in various movements throughout history, helping to challenge systemic inequalities and advocate for civil rights. By deliberately breaking laws deemed unjust, activists seek to provoke a moral dialogue and bring attention to their cause, often leading to significant societal changes.
Civil rights: Civil rights are the guarantees of equal social opportunities and protection under the law, regardless of race, gender, religion, or other characteristics. This concept encompasses various laws and amendments aimed at ensuring that individuals receive fair treatment and equal protection, particularly in the context of racial equality and the struggle against discrimination. Civil rights movements have played a significant role in reshaping American society, challenging segregation and advocating for equal access to education and public services.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is landmark legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. This act marked a significant turning point in the civil rights movement, providing a legal framework to challenge segregation and discrimination in various areas such as education and employment, building on the principles established in earlier cases and activism.
Cooper v. Aaron: Cooper v. Aaron was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1958 that reaffirmed the principles established in Brown v. Board of Education, specifically the requirement for desegregation in public schools. The ruling emphasized that state officials were bound by the Supreme Court's decisions and could not choose to ignore or defy them, reinforcing the authority of federal law over state laws in matters of civil rights.
Dwight D. Eisenhower: Dwight D. Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, serving from 1953 to 1961, and a five-star general in the U.S. Army during World War II. His leadership during the war and presidency significantly impacted American society, particularly in areas such as civil rights, foreign policy, and education, including the critical response to the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education.
Equal Protection Clause: The Equal Protection Clause is a provision in the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution that mandates that no state shall deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. This clause is essential for addressing issues of discrimination and ensuring that individuals are treated equally under the law, particularly in the context of civil rights and social justice.
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County: Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1964 that addressed the issue of school desegregation in Virginia. The case arose when the school board attempted to circumvent the Brown v. Board of Education ruling by implementing a 'freedom-of-choice' plan, which allowed students to choose their schools but effectively maintained segregation. The Supreme Court ruled that the plan was unconstitutional, reinforcing the requirement for immediate and effective desegregation in public schools.
Integration: Integration refers to the process of combining different groups into a unified whole, especially regarding racial and social equality. In the context of education and society, it is about creating an inclusive environment where individuals of all races and backgrounds can coexist, access the same resources, and share opportunities. The fight for integration, particularly in schools, was a crucial aspect of the civil rights movement aimed at dismantling segregation and promoting equality.
Jim Crow Laws: Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes enacted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States. These laws institutionalized a system of discrimination against African Americans, restricting their rights and maintaining white supremacy across various social, economic, and political aspects of life.
Little Rock Nine: The Little Rock Nine were a group of nine African American students who enrolled at Little Rock Central High School in 1957, becoming the first to integrate a previously all-white school in the Southern United States. Their enrollment followed the landmark Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, which declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, setting the stage for civil rights activism and further legislative changes aimed at ending racial discrimination.
Massive resistance: Massive resistance refers to the widespread and organized effort by Southern states and communities to resist the desegregation of public schools following the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. This response included legislative actions, public demonstrations, and various forms of opposition aimed at maintaining the status quo of racial segregation in education.
Montgomery Bus Boycott: The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a pivotal civil rights protest that began on December 5, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, aimed at ending racial segregation on public buses. Sparked by the arrest of Rosa Parks for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger, this year-long boycott involved African Americans refusing to ride city buses, significantly impacting the local economy and drawing national attention to the civil rights movement. The successful outcome of the boycott, culminating in a Supreme Court ruling that declared bus segregation unconstitutional, set the stage for further activism and legislation aimed at achieving racial equality.
NAACP: The NAACP, or National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, is a civil rights organization founded in 1909 to fight for the rights of African Americans and promote social justice. It has played a pivotal role in legal challenges against racial discrimination and segregation, notably influencing landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education. The organization has been a key player in various civil rights movements and legislative efforts aimed at achieving equality and combating racism in the United States.
Nonviolent resistance: Nonviolent resistance is a method of protest that seeks to achieve social or political change through peaceful means rather than through violence. This approach emphasizes the power of collective action, moral persuasion, and civil disobedience to challenge oppressive systems and advocate for justice. It gained prominence in the mid-20th century as a key strategy in the civil rights movement, significantly influencing landmark events and legislation aimed at dismantling segregation and promoting equality.
Plessy v. Ferguson: Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1896 that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation laws under the doctrine of 'separate but equal.' This case reinforced and legitimized the growing system of racial discrimination and segregation, particularly in the Southern United States, and laid the groundwork for Jim Crow laws that enforced racial separation in public facilities and services.
Racial segregation: Racial segregation refers to the systematic separation of people based on their race or ethnicity, which was legally enforced in the United States, particularly in the South, from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century. This practice was rooted in beliefs of racial superiority and aimed to maintain white dominance in social, economic, and political spheres. The legal framework supporting segregation was challenged by various civil rights movements, culminating in landmark cases that sought to dismantle these unjust laws.
Separate but Equal: Separate but equal is a legal doctrine that was established by the Supreme Court in the 1896 case Plessy v. Ferguson, which upheld state laws requiring racial segregation in public facilities. This ruling effectively legitimized the practice of segregation, suggesting that separate facilities for black and white individuals could be considered equal as long as they were of similar quality. The concept would later be challenged in court, most notably in Brown v. Board of Education, where it was ultimately declared unconstitutional, highlighting its inherent inequality.
Thurgood Marshall: Thurgood Marshall was the first African American Supreme Court Justice, serving from 1967 to 1991. He is best known for his role as a civil rights lawyer, particularly for his leadership in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education, which played a crucial part in the fight against racial segregation in public schools and ultimately led to the desegregation of schools across the United States.