9.2 Civil Rights Activism and Legislation
6 min read•july 31, 2024
The Civil Rights Movement saw activists and organizations fighting for racial equality through legal challenges, nonviolent protests, and grassroots organizing. Key events like the and the pushed for change, while leaders like and shaped the movement's direction.
Civil rights legislation, including the and the , dismantled legal segregation and protected voting rights. These laws, along with federal enforcement and Supreme Court decisions, marked significant progress in the struggle for racial equality in America.
Civil Rights Movement Leaders and Events
Key Organizations and Leaders
Top images from around the web for Key Organizations and Leaders
Southern Christian Leadership Conference - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Malcolm X – Wikipedie View original
Is this image relevant?
NAACP - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Southern Christian Leadership Conference - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Malcolm X – Wikipedie View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Key Organizations and Leaders
Southern Christian Leadership Conference - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Malcolm X – Wikipedie View original
Is this image relevant?
NAACP - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Southern Christian Leadership Conference - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Malcolm X – Wikipedie View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (), founded in 1909, fought for civil rights through legal challenges
- Notably, the case in 1954 challenged school segregation
- The (SCLC), led by Martin Luther King Jr., coordinated nonviolent protests and boycotts
- Organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) protesting segregated buses
- Coordinated the Birmingham Campaign (1963) against segregation in Birmingham, Alabama
- The (SNCC), formed in 1960, organized sit-ins, , and voter registration drives
- Key leaders included John Lewis and Stokely Carmichael
- Focused on grassroots organizing and direct action
- The (CORE), founded in 1942, participated in freedom rides and the (1963)
- Challenged segregation in interstate travel through Freedom Rides
- The Nation of Islam, led by Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X, advocated for black nationalism and self-determination
- Emphasized black pride, self-reliance, and separation from white society
Significant Events
- The (1957) integrated Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas amidst violent opposition
- The (1960) protested segregation at lunch counters in Greensboro, North Carolina
- The Freedom Rides (1961) challenged segregation in interstate buses and terminals
- The March on Washington (1963) brought together over 200,000 people to demand civil rights legislation
- Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech
- The (1964) was a voter registration drive in Mississippi met with violent resistance
- The (1965) protested for voting rights and led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965
Effectiveness of Civil Rights Strategies
Nonviolent Resistance and Civil Disobedience
- , as advocated by Martin Luther King Jr. and inspired by Mahatma Gandhi, aimed to expose the injustice of segregation and racism through peaceful protests, sit-ins, and boycotts
- Demonstrated moral strength and courage in the face of violence and oppression
- Garnered national and international support by highlighting the brutality of segregationists
- involved deliberately violating unjust laws to draw attention to their unfairness and prompt change
- Exemplified by the Greensboro sit-ins protesting segregated lunch counters
- Freedom Rides challenged segregation in interstate travel
- These strategies put pressure on the federal government to intervene and pass legislation protecting civil rights
- Led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
Criticisms and Alternative Approaches
- Some activists, such as Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael, criticized nonviolent resistance as too slow and ineffective
- Advocated for more assertive approaches, such as black nationalism and
- Emphasized self-determination, self-defense, and pride in black identity
- The Black Power movement gained traction in the late 1960s, particularly among younger activists
- Stokely Carmichael popularized the term during the Meredith March Against Fear in 1966
- The , founded in 1966, embodied the Black Power philosophy through its and community organizing
Impact of Civil Rights Legislation
Civil Rights Act of 1964
- Prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public accommodations, employment, and federally funded programs
- Title II banned discrimination in public accommodations (restaurants, hotels, theaters)
- Title VII prohibited employment discrimination and established the (EEOC) to investigate complaints
- Dismantled the legal framework of segregation in public spaces and employment
- Laid the groundwork for further anti-discrimination legislation
Voting Rights Act of 1965
- Outlawed discriminatory voting practices (literacy tests, poll taxes) used to disenfranchise African Americans
- Section 2 prohibited any voting practice or procedure that discriminated based on race or color
- Section 5 required certain states and local governments with a history of voting discrimination to obtain federal preclearance before changing voting laws or practices
- Ensured equal voting rights for African Americans and increased their political participation
- Mississippi's black voter registration increased from 6.7% in 1964 to 59.8% in 1967
- Paved the way for the election of African American officials at all levels of government
Long-term Impact
- These laws were crucial in dismantling the legal framework of segregation and ensuring equal rights for African Americans
- Set the stage for further civil rights advancements
- prohibited discrimination in housing
- strengthened employment discrimination protections
- Inspired other social movements (women's rights, LGBTQ+ rights, disability rights) to pursue legal protections and equality
Federal Role in Civil Rights
Presidential Actions
- President Dwight D. Eisenhower enforced the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School in 1957 by sending federal troops to protect the Little Rock Nine
- Demonstrated the federal government's commitment to upholding court-ordered desegregation
- President John F. Kennedy supported the civil rights movement through speeches and proposed legislation
- Gave a televised address in 1963 calling civil rights a moral issue and introducing comprehensive civil rights legislation
- Much of his proposed legislation was passed after his assassination
- President Lyndon B. Johnson played a crucial role in passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
- Used his political skills and the momentum generated by the civil rights movement to secure passage of the legislation
- Signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law on July 2, 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 on August 6, 1965
Department of Justice and Federal Agencies
- The , led by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, actively supported civil rights
- Protected protesters, investigated violations, and filed lawsuits against discriminatory practices
- Sent U.S. Marshals to protect Freedom Riders and enforce desegregation
- The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was established by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to investigate and enforce employment discrimination laws
- The , created by the Civil Rights Act of 1957, investigated and reported on civil rights violations
Supreme Court Decisions
- The Supreme Court issued landmark rulings that struck down segregation and discrimination
- Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared school segregation unconstitutional
- (1964) upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
- (1967) struck down state laws banning interracial marriage
Limitations and Inconsistencies
- The federal government's commitment to civil rights was not always consistent
- FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover conducted surveillance on civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr.
- Some presidents, such as Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy, were initially reluctant to fully support the civil rights movement
- Enforcement of civil rights legislation faced challenges, particularly in the Deep South
- Some states and local governments resisted desegregation and voter registration efforts
- Violence against civil rights activists persisted, as exemplified by the murders of Medgar Evers, James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner
Key Terms to Review (31)
Black Panther Party: The Black Panther Party was a revolutionary socialist organization founded in 1966 that aimed to combat systemic racism and police brutality against African Americans. Emerging during the civil rights movement, it sought to empower Black communities through self-defense, social programs, and community organizing, significantly influencing both civil rights activism and legislation.
Black power: Black power is a political and social movement that emerged in the 1960s, advocating for the rights and empowerment of African Americans and emphasizing racial pride, self-determination, and economic independence. This movement sought to challenge systemic racism and promote a more radical approach to civil rights, moving beyond integrationist strategies.
Brown v. Board of Education: Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, effectively overturning the 'separate but equal' doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896. This case was a major turning point in the civil rights movement, as it set the stage for further legal challenges against racial discrimination and ignited widespread activism aimed at desegregation across the United States.
Civil Disobedience: Civil disobedience is the active, nonviolent refusal to obey certain laws, demands, or commands of a government, aimed at highlighting injustice and prompting change. This form of protest has played a crucial role in various movements throughout history, helping to challenge systemic inequalities and advocate for civil rights. By deliberately breaking laws deemed unjust, activists seek to provoke a moral dialogue and bring attention to their cause, often leading to significant societal changes.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is landmark legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. This act marked a significant turning point in the civil rights movement, providing a legal framework to challenge segregation and discrimination in various areas such as education and employment, building on the principles established in earlier cases and activism.
Civil Rights Act of 1991: The Civil Rights Act of 1991 is a significant piece of legislation that aimed to strengthen and expand the civil rights protections established in previous laws. It was designed to address issues of employment discrimination, providing individuals with the ability to seek damages in cases of intentional discrimination and ensuring that existing civil rights laws were more effectively enforced.
Commission on Civil Rights: The Commission on Civil Rights is a U.S. federal agency established in 1957 to investigate and report on civil rights issues, advising Congress and the President on matters of discrimination and equality. This commission was pivotal in highlighting the injustices faced by minority groups and played a crucial role in shaping civil rights legislation during the 1960s.
Congress of Racial Equality: The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) is a civil rights organization founded in 1942 that played a crucial role in the struggle for racial equality in the United States. CORE is known for its nonviolent approach to activism and its emphasis on direct action, which was pivotal in challenging segregation and discrimination, especially during the Civil Rights Movement.
Department of Justice: The Department of Justice (DOJ) is a federal executive department responsible for enforcing the law and administering justice in the United States. It plays a vital role in the protection of civil rights and the prosecution of violations, acting as a critical player in civil rights activism and legislation by investigating and litigating cases that seek to uphold the legal rights of individuals, particularly those from marginalized communities.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a federal agency created in 1965 to enforce laws prohibiting employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability, and genetic information. This commission plays a crucial role in civil rights activism and legislation by investigating complaints of discrimination, facilitating mediation between employers and employees, and enforcing compliance with various anti-discrimination laws.
Fair Housing Act of 1968: The Fair Housing Act of 1968 is a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that prohibits discrimination in housing based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, familial status, and disability. This act emerged from the Civil Rights Movement and aimed to address and eliminate systemic inequalities in housing opportunities for all Americans, promoting fair access to housing and combating segregation.
Freedom Ride: Freedom Rides were a series of bus trips taken by civil rights activists in the early 1960s to challenge racial segregation in the southern United States. These rides were significant as they aimed to test the Supreme Court rulings that declared segregated bus terminals unconstitutional, ultimately highlighting the ongoing resistance to desegregation in many southern states and galvanizing support for the civil rights movement.
Freedom Rides: Freedom Rides were a series of bus trips taken by civil rights activists in the early 1960s to challenge segregation in interstate bus terminals across the Southern United States. These rides aimed to test and enforce the Supreme Court decisions that declared segregated facilities unconstitutional, serving as a significant act of nonviolent protest against racial discrimination.
Freedom Summer: Freedom Summer was a significant campaign in 1964 aimed at increasing voter registration among African Americans in Mississippi. This initiative highlighted the pervasive racial discrimination and violence that Black citizens faced when trying to exercise their right to vote, as well as the broader struggle for civil rights during the era. The campaign not only sought to empower Black voters but also drew national attention to the injustices in the South, ultimately influencing civil rights legislation.
Greensboro Sit-Ins: The Greensboro Sit-Ins were a series of nonviolent protests against racial segregation that began on February 1, 1960, in Greensboro, North Carolina, where four African American college students sat at a segregated Woolworth's lunch counter and refused to leave after being denied service. This act of civil disobedience became a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement, inspiring similar sit-ins across the country and highlighting the struggle against systemic racism and segregation in public spaces.
Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States: Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1964 that upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, specifically regarding the prohibition of racial discrimination in public accommodations. This case was significant in affirming that Congress had the authority to regulate interstate commerce to prevent discrimination, connecting civil rights activism to federal legislation aimed at achieving equality.
Little Rock Nine: The Little Rock Nine were a group of nine African American students who enrolled at Little Rock Central High School in 1957, becoming the first to integrate a previously all-white school in the Southern United States. Their enrollment followed the landmark Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, which declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, setting the stage for civil rights activism and further legislative changes aimed at ending racial discrimination.
Loving v. Virginia: Loving v. Virginia was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1967 that struck down laws banning interracial marriage in the United States. The decision was pivotal in the civil rights movement as it affirmed the fundamental right to marry regardless of race, signaling a major shift in American legal and social norms related to marriage and equality.
Malcolm X: Malcolm X was an African American Muslim minister and human rights activist known for his fierce advocacy for the rights of Black Americans and his criticism of systemic racism in the United States. He emerged as a prominent figure in the civil rights movement during the 1960s, emphasizing self-defense and the need for Black empowerment in response to racial oppression.
March on Washington: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, held on August 28, 1963, was a pivotal demonstration advocating for civil rights and economic equality for African Americans. The event is best known for Martin Luther King Jr.'s iconic 'I Have a Dream' speech, which called for an end to racism and a commitment to social justice. This gathering was a significant moment in the civil rights movement, showcasing the unity and determination of activists seeking legislative change and greater social justice in the United States.
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, held on August 28, 1963, was a pivotal demonstration in American history where over 250,000 people gathered to advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans. This event is most famously remembered for Martin Luther King Jr.'s iconic 'I Have a Dream' speech, which called for racial equality and justice. The march highlighted the urgent need for legislation addressing civil rights and economic disparities, influencing the passage of significant civil rights laws in the following years.
Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent American civil rights leader who advocated for nonviolent resistance and equality for African Americans during the 1950s and 1960s. He played a critical role in the civil rights movement, aiming to dismantle racial segregation and discrimination through peaceful protests, speeches, and activism. King's leadership helped to mobilize public support for significant civil rights legislation, making him a symbol of the struggle for racial justice in the United States.
Montgomery Bus Boycott: The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a pivotal civil rights protest that began on December 5, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, aimed at ending racial segregation on public buses. Sparked by the arrest of Rosa Parks for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger, this year-long boycott involved African Americans refusing to ride city buses, significantly impacting the local economy and drawing national attention to the civil rights movement. The successful outcome of the boycott, culminating in a Supreme Court ruling that declared bus segregation unconstitutional, set the stage for further activism and legislation aimed at achieving racial equality.
NAACP: The NAACP, or National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, is a civil rights organization founded in 1909 to fight for the rights of African Americans and promote social justice. It has played a pivotal role in legal challenges against racial discrimination and segregation, notably influencing landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education. The organization has been a key player in various civil rights movements and legislative efforts aimed at achieving equality and combating racism in the United States.
Nonviolent resistance: Nonviolent resistance is a method of protest that seeks to achieve social or political change through peaceful means rather than through violence. This approach emphasizes the power of collective action, moral persuasion, and civil disobedience to challenge oppressive systems and advocate for justice. It gained prominence in the mid-20th century as a key strategy in the civil rights movement, significantly influencing landmark events and legislation aimed at dismantling segregation and promoting equality.
Selma to Montgomery marches: The Selma to Montgomery marches were a series of three protest marches held in 1965, aimed at combating racial discrimination and securing voting rights for African Americans in the South. The marches highlighted the brutal realities of segregation and voter suppression, culminating in a pivotal moment for civil rights activism and significantly influencing subsequent legislation to protect voting rights.
Sit-in: A sit-in is a form of nonviolent protest where participants occupy a space, typically a public place or business, to express opposition to racial segregation or other forms of discrimination. This method became a powerful symbol of civil rights activism in the United States, especially during the 1960s, highlighting the demand for equality and justice in public spaces, such as restaurants and schools.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) is an African American civil rights organization founded in 1957, emphasizing nonviolent protest and Christian principles in the struggle for civil rights. The SCLC played a crucial role in organizing protests and campaigns aimed at ending segregation and achieving voting rights, becoming a key player in the civil rights movement.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was a key civil rights organization formed in 1960 to empower students and promote nonviolent protests against racial segregation and discrimination. SNCC became known for its grassroots activism and significant contributions to major events like sit-ins and voter registration drives, helping to shape the civil rights movement during the 1960s.
Ten-Point Program: The Ten-Point Program was a set of demands outlined by the Black Panther Party in 1966 that aimed to address systemic inequalities and injustices faced by African Americans. The program called for basic human rights, economic justice, and an end to police brutality, emphasizing the need for community empowerment and self-determination in the fight for civil rights.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a landmark piece of federal legislation that aimed to eliminate barriers to voting for African Americans and other minorities in the United States. This act was a crucial response to the widespread discrimination faced by Black voters, particularly in the South, where practices such as literacy tests and poll taxes were used to disenfranchise them. By prohibiting these discriminatory practices and providing for federal oversight of voter registration and elections in areas with a history of voting discrimination, the act significantly advanced civil rights and empowered minority voters.