Glossary

10.2 Slave trade and Middle Passage

8 min read•august 20, 2024

The , spanning over 400 years, forcibly transported millions of Africans to the Americas. Driven by European colonial labor demands, it connected Africa, Europe, and the Americas in a global trade system with far-reaching consequences.

European nations, starting with Portugal, dominated the slave trade. African kingdoms often collaborated, though exploited. The , the brutal journey across the Atlantic, resulted in high mortality rates. Upon arrival, slaves faced auctions, seasoning, and harsh plantation life.

Origins of African slave trade

  • The African slave trade began in the 15th century and lasted for over 400 years, involving the forced transportation of millions of Africans to the Americas
  • The slave trade was driven by the demand for labor in European colonies, particularly in the Caribbean and South America, where plantations required a large workforce
  • The Atlantic slave trade was part of a larger system of global trade that connected Africa, Europe, and the Americas, and had significant economic, social, and political consequences for all three regions

European involvement in slave trade

Portuguese role in early slave trade

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  • The Portuguese were the first Europeans to engage in the African slave trade, establishing trading posts along the West African coast in the 15th century
  • Portuguese traders initially focused on acquiring gold and other commodities, but soon began to purchase enslaved Africans to work on sugar plantations in their Atlantic islands (São Tomé and Príncipe)
  • The Portuguese crown monopolized the slave trade for much of the 16th century, supplying enslaved Africans to their own colonies in Brazil and to Spanish colonies in the Americas

Spanish use of African slaves

  • The Spanish began to import African slaves to their American colonies in the early 16th century, as the indigenous population declined due to disease and overwork
  • African slaves were initially used in gold and silver mines, but later became the primary labor force on sugar and tobacco plantations in the Spanish Caribbean (, , and )
  • The Spanish relied on the , granting contracts to foreign merchants (mostly Portuguese) to supply slaves to their colonies

Dutch entry into slave trade

  • The Dutch emerged as major participants in the Atlantic slave trade in the 17th century, after gaining independence from Spain and establishing colonies in the Americas (Suriname, Guyana, and the Dutch Caribbean islands)
  • Dutch merchants, particularly the , became the primary suppliers of slaves to the Spanish colonies through the asiento system
  • The Dutch also supplied slaves to their own colonies and to English and French colonies, and played a significant role in the expansion of the slave trade in the 17th and 18th centuries

English dominance of slave trade

  • The English entered the slave trade in the mid-17th century, initially supplying slaves to their own colonies in the Caribbean (Barbados and Jamaica) and North America (Virginia and Maryland)
  • The expanded rapidly in the late 17th and 18th centuries, as the demand for labor on sugar and tobacco plantations increased
  • The English became the dominant force in the Atlantic slave trade by the mid-18th century, supplying slaves to their own colonies and to other European colonies through the system (manufactured goods from Europe to Africa, slaves from Africa to the Americas, and sugar and other commodities from the Americas to Europe)

African role in slave trade

African kingdoms vs European traders

  • African kingdoms and states played a significant role in the slave trade, often collaborating with European traders to capture and sell slaves in exchange for European goods (firearms, textiles, and other manufactured items)
  • Some African rulers, such as the and Asante, became wealthy and powerful through their involvement in the slave trade
  • However, the relationship between African kingdoms and European traders was often unequal and exploitative, with Europeans using their superior military technology and economic power to dictate the terms of trade

Slave capture and transport

  • Enslaved Africans were captured through various means, including warfare, kidnapping, and judicial punishment, and were often sold to European traders by African middlemen
  • The process of capture and transport was brutal and traumatic, with many Africans dying from disease, starvation, and violence before even reaching the coast
  • Enslaved Africans were held in coastal forts and dungeons before being loaded onto ships for the Middle Passage, the dangerous and often deadly journey across the Atlantic Ocean

The Middle Passage

Conditions on slave ships

  • The conditions on slave ships during the Middle Passage were horrific, with enslaved Africans packed tightly into the holds of the ships, often chained together and forced to lie in their own filth
  • Slaves were given minimal food and water, and were often subjected to physical and sexual abuse by the crew
  • The lack of sanitation and ventilation on the ships led to the spread of diseases such as dysentery, smallpox, and yellow fever

Diseases and mortality rates

  • The mortality rate during the Middle Passage was extremely high, with estimates ranging from 10-20% of enslaved Africans dying during the journey
  • Diseases such as dysentery, smallpox, and yellow fever were the primary causes of death, along with starvation, dehydration, and suicide
  • The mortality rate was even higher for children and the elderly, who were more vulnerable to the harsh conditions on the ships

Resistance and revolts

  • Despite the brutal conditions on the slave ships, enslaved Africans often resisted their captivity through various means, including suicide, self-mutilation, and armed revolt
  • There were numerous documented cases of slave revolts on ships during the Middle Passage, with some successful in taking control of the ship and returning to Africa or seeking refuge in other parts of the Americas
  • The most famous slave revolt on a ship was the Amistad rebellion in 1839, in which a group of enslaved Africans took control of a Spanish ship and eventually won their freedom in the United States Supreme Court

Arrival in the Americas

Slave markets and auctions

  • Upon arrival in the Americas, enslaved Africans were typically sold at and auctions, where they were inspected and purchased by plantation owners and other buyers
  • were a brutal and dehumanizing process, with enslaved Africans often separated from their families and sold to the highest bidder
  • The prices of slaves varied depending on factors such as age, gender, and physical condition, with young adult males typically commanding the highest prices

Seasoning process for new slaves

  • After being purchased, new slaves often underwent a "seasoning" process, in which they were trained and acclimated to their new environment and the demands of plantation labor
  • The could last several months to a year, and often involved physical punishment, psychological conditioning, and the suppression of African cultural practices and identity
  • Many slaves died during the seasoning process due to the harsh conditions, overwork, and the trauma of being separated from their families and communities

Slave distribution in colonies

  • The distribution of slaves in the Americas varied depending on the region and the type of
  • In the Caribbean and Brazil, slaves were primarily used on sugar plantations, which required a large and constantly replenished labor force due to the high mortality rates
  • In the southern colonies of British North America (later the United States), slaves were used primarily on tobacco and rice plantations, and later on cotton plantations after the invention of the cotton gin in the late 18th century
  • In the northern colonies of British North America, slavery was less prevalent and was primarily used in domestic service and small-scale agriculture

Economic impact of slave trade

Profits for European countries

  • The Atlantic slave trade was a highly profitable enterprise for European countries, particularly those with colonies in the Americas
  • The profits from the slave trade helped to finance the Industrial Revolution in Europe, as well as the expansion of European empires and global trade networks
  • The slave trade also generated significant tax revenue for European governments, which used the funds to finance military campaigns and other state expenses

Effects on African societies

  • The Atlantic slave trade had a devastating impact on African societies, leading to the depopulation of entire regions and the destabilization of political and economic systems
  • The demand for slaves led to increased warfare and raiding among African states, as well as the rise of predatory states that specialized in capturing and selling slaves
  • The slave trade also led to the spread of diseases such as smallpox and measles, which had a devastating impact on African populations with no prior exposure or immunity

Significance to colonial economies

  • The Atlantic slave trade was a critical component of the in the Americas, particularly in the Caribbean and Brazil, where sugar production was the primary economic activity
  • Slave labor was essential to the profitability of sugar plantations, which required a large and constantly replenished workforce due to the high mortality rates and the physically demanding nature of the work
  • The profits from the slave trade and slave labor helped to finance the expansion of European colonies in the Americas, as well as the development of new industries such as rum production and shipbuilding

Abolition of slave trade

Early opposition to slave trade

  • Opposition to the Atlantic slave trade began to emerge in the late 18th century, as Enlightenment ideas about human rights and natural law gained traction in Europe and the Americas
  • Early abolitionists such as and in Britain, and and in the United States, argued that the slave trade was morally wrong and violated the principles of Christianity and natural rights
  • The were among the first religious groups to oppose the slave trade, and played a significant role in the early on both sides of the Atlantic

British abolition in 1807

  • In 1807, the British Parliament passed the Slave Trade Act, which prohibited the slave trade in the British Empire and made it illegal for British ships to transport slaves
  • The act was the result of a long campaign by British abolitionists, who had been working to end the slave trade since the 1780s
  • The British abolition of the slave trade was a significant milestone in the global abolitionist movement, and put pressure on other European countries to follow suit

Continuing illegal slave trade

  • Despite the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807, the illegal slave trade continued for several decades, particularly by Spanish, Portuguese, and American ships
  • The illegal slave trade was driven by the continuing demand for slave labor in the Americas, particularly in Cuba and Brazil, where sugar production was still expanding
  • The British Navy played a significant role in suppressing the illegal slave trade, by patrolling the African coast and intercepting slave ships, but the trade continued until the mid-19th century

Final suppression efforts

  • The final suppression of the Atlantic slave trade came in the mid-19th century, as a result of a combination of factors, including the rise of abolitionist movements in the Americas, the decline of the sugar industry, and the increasing use of indentured labor from Asia
  • In 1833, the British Parliament passed the Slavery Abolition Act, which abolished slavery throughout the British Empire, and put pressure on other European countries to do the same
  • The United States banned the importation of slaves in 1808, but slavery itself was not abolished until the end of the Civil War in 1865
  • Brazil was the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery, in 1888, after a long and gradual process of emancipation that began in the 1850s

Key Terms to Review (37)

Abolitionist movement: The abolitionist movement was a social and political campaign aimed at ending slavery and the slave trade, primarily in the United States, during the 18th and 19th centuries. This movement arose as a response to the brutal realities of slavery, which included the horrific experiences of enslaved individuals during the Middle Passage and their ongoing struggle for dignity and freedom. Abolitionists sought to raise awareness, influence public opinion, and advocate for legal reforms to abolish slavery, creating a significant cultural shift in attitudes toward race and human rights.
Abolitionist Perspective: The abolitionist perspective refers to the viewpoint and advocacy for the immediate end of slavery and the emancipation of all enslaved individuals. This perspective emerged in the early 19th century and emphasized moral, ethical, and humanitarian arguments against the institution of slavery, often highlighting the inhumane conditions faced by enslaved people during events like the Middle Passage.
Amistad Incident: The Amistad Incident refers to a rebellion that took place in 1839 aboard the Spanish slave ship La Amistad, where enslaved Africans seized control of the vessel in a desperate bid for freedom. This event became significant not only for its dramatic nature but also for its legal ramifications, as it raised important questions about slavery, human rights, and the legality of the transatlantic slave trade during a time when abolitionist sentiment was growing in the United States.
Anthony Benezet: Anthony Benezet was an 18th-century Quaker abolitionist and educator who played a crucial role in the early anti-slavery movement in the United States. His writings and advocacy focused on the moral and humanitarian aspects of slavery, which contributed to a growing awareness and opposition to the slave trade and the brutal realities of the Middle Passage.
Asiento system: The asiento system was a contractual agreement established in the 16th century that granted permission to specific merchants or nations to supply enslaved Africans to Spanish colonies in the Americas. This system played a critical role in the transatlantic slave trade, as it regulated the supply of enslaved people and created economic incentives for European powers to participate in the trade.
Atlantic Slave Trade: The Atlantic Slave Trade was a transatlantic system that transported millions of enslaved Africans to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries. This brutal practice was a key component of the triangular trade, where goods and slaves were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, significantly impacting economies and societies on both sides of the Atlantic.
Benjamin Franklin: Benjamin Franklin was a Founding Father of the United States, known for his contributions as a statesman, inventor, writer, and diplomat. His influence extended into various aspects of colonial society, economy, politics, and international relations, establishing him as a key figure during the revolutionary period.
Cash Crops: Cash crops are agricultural products that are grown primarily for sale rather than for personal consumption. These crops are essential to the economy of many regions, especially in colonial America, where they significantly influenced settlement patterns, trade, and the development of an agrarian society.
Charleston: Charleston is a historic city located in South Carolina, known for its significant role in the early American economy and its involvement in the transatlantic slave trade. The city was a major port where enslaved Africans arrived in the United States, making it one of the largest slave-trading centers in North America. Charleston's economy heavily relied on plantations that utilized slave labor, and its culture was deeply influenced by this reliance on slavery.
Chattel Slavery: Chattel slavery refers to a system where individuals are treated as personal property that can be bought, sold, and owned. This form of slavery is marked by its hereditary nature, where the status of being a slave is passed down from parent to child, fundamentally shaping economic, social, and cultural dynamics in societies, particularly in the Americas, where it became deeply intertwined with the agricultural economy and trade networks.
Colonial economies: Colonial economies refer to the economic systems established by European powers in their colonies, characterized by the extraction of resources, agricultural production, and trade networks that often relied on enslaved labor. These economies were deeply interconnected with the global economy and played a significant role in shaping social and political structures within the colonies. The reliance on slave labor, particularly in plantations, was a defining feature of colonial economies, impacting both the colonizers and the enslaved populations.
Compromise of 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was a series of legislative measures aimed at resolving tensions between slave and free states following the Mexican-American War. It included provisions that addressed issues such as the status of territories acquired from Mexico, the admission of California as a free state, and stricter fugitive slave laws, which attempted to balance the interests of both pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions.
Cuba: Cuba is an island nation located in the Caribbean, known for its rich history and culture. During the era of the transatlantic slave trade, Cuba became a significant destination for enslaved Africans, who were forcibly brought to the island to work primarily in sugar plantations, which became a vital part of the economy. The importation of enslaved people not only shaped Cuban society but also contributed to the broader patterns of the slave trade and the Middle Passage.
Dutch West India Company: The Dutch West India Company was a trading company established by the Dutch Republic in 1621, aimed at promoting trade and colonization in the Americas and West Africa. It played a significant role in the transatlantic slave trade, facilitating the transportation of enslaved Africans to work on plantations in the Caribbean and South America.
English Slave Trade: The English Slave Trade refers to the system through which English merchants and shipowners transported enslaved Africans to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. This trade was a critical component of the triangular trade system, linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas, and it played a significant role in the economic development of England and its colonies, heavily influencing the culture and society of both regions.
Fugitive Slave Act: The Fugitive Slave Act refers to laws passed in the United States in 1793 and 1850 that mandated the return of runaway slaves to their owners. These acts intensified the debate over slavery, particularly as they forced citizens in free states to participate in the institution of slavery and exacerbated tensions between the North and South.
Ghana: Ghana was a powerful West African empire that thrived from the 6th to the 13th century, primarily known for its wealth derived from trade, especially in gold and salt. Its strategic position along trade routes allowed it to become a central hub for commerce and cultural exchange, greatly influencing the development of the trans-Saharan trade network and laying the groundwork for future empires in the region.
Granville Sharp: Granville Sharp was an English abolitionist and a key figure in the movement against slavery in the late 18th century. He is particularly known for his legal work and advocacy that contributed to the eventual abolition of the slave trade and slavery in Britain. Sharp's efforts highlighted the injustices of the slave trade and played a significant role in shaping public opinion regarding slavery, linking him to broader themes surrounding human rights and justice during this period.
Hispaniola: Hispaniola is an island in the Caribbean that is divided into two nations: Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It was one of the first areas in the Americas to be colonized by Europeans, particularly after Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492, and it played a significant role in the transatlantic slave trade and the subsequent development of plantation economies in the region.
Kings of Asante: The Kings of Asante, known as the Asantehene, were the monarchs of the Asante Empire, a powerful kingdom located in what is now Ghana. The Asantehene held significant political, military, and religious authority, leading a centralized state that controlled trade routes and played a crucial role in the transatlantic slave trade, particularly in relation to the supply of enslaved Africans to European traders during this era.
Kings of Dahomey: The Kings of Dahomey were the rulers of the Dahomey Kingdom, located in present-day Benin, West Africa. This powerful kingdom thrived from the 17th to the 19th century and played a crucial role in the transatlantic slave trade, engaging actively in the capture and sale of enslaved people to European traders, which connected them to the broader dynamics of the slave trade and Middle Passage.
Middle Passage: The Middle Passage refers to the brutal and inhumane sea journey taken by enslaved Africans who were forcibly transported to the Americas as part of the transatlantic slave trade. This voyage was characterized by overcrowded ships, unsanitary conditions, and high mortality rates, as countless individuals suffered during the journey. The Middle Passage was a crucial component of the slave trade, linking Africa with the colonies and contributing significantly to the colonial economy and the establishment of slavery in America.
Plantation Economy: A plantation economy is a system of agriculture that focuses on the large-scale production of cash crops, such as tobacco, cotton, and sugar, primarily for export rather than for local consumption. This economic model became particularly prominent in the Southern Colonies and was heavily reliant on enslaved labor to cultivate the land and maximize profits, significantly shaping social, economic, and political dynamics in the region.
Portuguese Slave Trade: The Portuguese Slave Trade refers to the extensive network established by Portugal in the 15th and 16th centuries for the capture, transportation, and sale of enslaved Africans to work in the New World and on plantations. This trade played a significant role in the development of the Atlantic slave trade system, facilitating the movement of millions of enslaved people across the Atlantic Ocean, particularly to Brazil and the Caribbean, where they were forced into labor on sugar plantations.
Puerto Rico: Puerto Rico is an island territory of the United States located in the Caribbean Sea, known for its rich history and cultural blend of indigenous Taíno, African, and Spanish influences. It played a significant role in the transatlantic slave trade, particularly as a destination for enslaved Africans brought to work on sugar plantations, connecting it to the broader narrative of slavery and the Middle Passage.
Quakers: Quakers, also known as the Religious Society of Friends, are a Christian denomination founded in the 17th century that emphasizes direct experience of God through personal revelation and spiritual equality. Their beliefs significantly influenced colonial society, particularly in the Middle Colonies, where they played a major role in promoting religious tolerance, anti-slavery movements, and peaceful coexistence.
Seasoning process: The seasoning process refers to the brutal and dehumanizing method used during the transatlantic slave trade to prepare enslaved Africans for life in the Americas. This process involved a combination of physical labor, psychological manipulation, and cultural erasure, aimed at breaking the will of the enslaved individuals and making them more compliant to their new environment. By stripping away their previous identities and enforcing obedience, slave owners sought to create a workforce that could be exploited for agricultural and other labor needs.
Slave auctions: Slave auctions were public sales where enslaved individuals were sold to the highest bidder, often as a result of the transatlantic slave trade. These auctions represented a dehumanizing aspect of the institution of slavery, where families were torn apart and individuals treated as property rather than human beings. The process was integral to the expansion of slavery in the Americas and had significant social and economic implications for both the enslaved and slave owners.
Slave capture: Slave capture refers to the process of forcibly seizing individuals and transporting them into slavery, primarily during the transatlantic slave trade. This brutal practice was a key component of the larger slave trade system, which facilitated the movement of enslaved Africans to the Americas. Slave capture involved violence and deception, as captors would often raid villages, engage in warfare, or exploit existing tribal conflicts to acquire slaves for the lucrative market.
Slave markets: Slave markets were places where enslaved individuals were bought and sold, playing a critical role in the transatlantic slave trade. These markets facilitated the exchange of enslaved people, often subjected to brutal conditions, and were essential to the economic systems of many regions, particularly in the Americas. They represent a harsh reality of the dehumanization and commodification of human lives during the era of slavery.
Slave resistance: Slave resistance refers to the various methods employed by enslaved individuals to resist their oppression and assert their humanity. This can include both overt actions like revolts and rebellions, as well as more subtle forms of defiance such as work slowdowns, sabotage, and the preservation of cultural practices. Resistance played a crucial role in shaping the dynamics of the slave trade and the experiences of those subjected to the Middle Passage.
Slave Trade Act of 1807: The Slave Trade Act of 1807 was a British law that made it illegal to engage in the slave trade within the British Empire, marking a significant step toward the eventual abolition of slavery. This act aimed to end the importation of enslaved Africans, impacting the transatlantic slave trade and addressing growing moral and humanitarian concerns about the inhumane treatment of individuals during transport across the Middle Passage.
Slave transport: Slave transport refers to the process of forcibly moving enslaved individuals, primarily from Africa to the Americas, as part of the transatlantic slave trade. This horrific journey involved the Middle Passage, where enslaved Africans endured brutal conditions on overcrowded ships, leading to high mortality rates and immense suffering. The slave transport system played a crucial role in establishing the plantation economy in the New World and had lasting impacts on societies across the Atlantic.
Slavery Abolition Act of 1833: The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 was a significant piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament that abolished slavery throughout the British Empire, freeing all enslaved people in the colonies. This act marked a crucial step in the global movement toward the abolition of slavery, influenced by growing moral opposition to the practice and economic considerations related to its inefficiency and costs. The act provided for a transition period where enslaved individuals were deemed 'apprentices' for several years before full freedom was granted, reflecting the complexities of abolishing a deeply entrenched institution.
Southern Justification for Slavery: The southern justification for slavery refers to the beliefs and arguments used by pro-slavery advocates in the antebellum South to defend and rationalize the institution of slavery. These justifications included economic, social, religious, and pseudo-scientific claims that portrayed slavery as a positive good for both enslaved individuals and Southern society as a whole.
Thomas Clarkson: Thomas Clarkson was an English abolitionist and a key figure in the movement to end the transatlantic slave trade during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. His tireless efforts included gathering evidence, publishing works, and campaigning for social reform, significantly influencing public opinion against slavery and the slave trade.
Triangular Trade: Triangular trade refers to the transatlantic trading system that developed in the 16th to 19th centuries, connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This complex network facilitated the exchange of goods, people, and resources, profoundly impacting economies and societies across these regions. The movement of enslaved Africans to the Americas was a central aspect of this trade, linking economic motives with the grim realities of slavery and exploitation.
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