6.4 Declaration of Independence
7 min read•august 20, 2024
The marked a pivotal moment in American history, formalizing the colonies' break from British rule. Rooted in Enlightenment philosophy, it articulated key principles of , , and the right to revolution against tyranny.
Drafted by and revised by the Continental Congress, the Declaration listed grievances against to justify independence. Its enduring legacy shaped American ideals and inspired later movements for freedom and equality around the world.
Origins of the Declaration
- The Declaration of Independence emerged from a context of growing colonial discontent with British rule and was heavily influenced by Enlightenment political philosophy
- The decision to formally declare independence was made by the , which had convened in Philadelphia in May to coordinate the colonial response to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War
Enlightenment influences
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- The Declaration's emphasis on natural rights, consent of the governed, and justified revolution reflected ideas from Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- Locke's Two Treatises of Government argued that governments derived their legitimacy from the consent of the governed and could be overthrown if they violated the people's natural rights (life, liberty, property)
- Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration's primary author, was well-versed in Enlightenment political philosophy and consciously echoed these themes
Colonial grievances
- By 1776, many colonists had become alienated by what they saw as escalating British infringements on their rights as Englishmen (, quartering of soldiers, limits on self-government)
- Events like the Stamp Act crisis, Boston Massacre, , and Coercive Acts fueled a sense that the British government was increasingly tyrannical and unresponsive to colonial concerns
- Paine's widely-read pamphlet Common Sense made a persuasive case for independence and helped rally public opinion
Second Continental Congress
- The Second Continental Congress, composed of delegates from all thirteen colonies, initially sought reconciliation with Britain but increasingly moved towards independence as the conflict escalated
- In June 1776, the Congress appointed a five-member committee to draft a formal declaration of independence
- After voting in favor of independence on July 2nd, the Congress then debated and revised the committee's draft declaration before approving the final version on July 4th
Drafting the document
- The Declaration of Independence was the product of a collaborative drafting process by the and the revisions and input of the full Second Continental Congress
Committee of Five
- The Committee of Five tasked with drafting the Declaration consisted of , Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman
- These men were chosen for their abilities as writers and their representation of different geographic regions
- The committee met briefly and then delegated the actual writing of the first draft to Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson's role
- As the committee's youngest member, Jefferson was given the task of producing the first draft of the Declaration
- He drew heavily on his own draft of the Virginia Constitution and incorporated feedback from the other committee members
- Jefferson's draft was then presented to the Congress on June 28th for their consideration
Editing and approval process
- The full Congress subjected Jefferson's draft to an intensive process of editing and revision over the next few days
- Most of the edits were minor, but some significant passages were removed, including Jefferson's lengthy condemnation of the slave trade
- The final version was approved on July 4th and signed by John Hancock as President of the Congress
Key principles and ideas
- The Declaration of Independence articulated a set of universal political principles grounded in Enlightenment thought and the Anglo-American political tradition
Natural rights philosophy
- The Declaration's famous second paragraph asserted that "all men are created equal" and endowed with "unalienable rights" to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"
- This reflected the Enlightenment idea that human beings possessed inherent natural rights that could not be legitimately violated by governments
- The Declaration essentially stated that these natural rights were the source of the colonies' right to establish their own independent government
Consent of the governed
- Closely tied to natural rights theory was the idea that legitimate government rested on the "consent of the governed"
- The Declaration held that governments derived "their just powers from the consent of the governed" and that the people had the right to alter or abolish governments that failed to protect their rights
- This stood in sharp contrast to the British idea that political authority emanated from the Crown and Parliament, not the people
Right of revolution
- The Declaration asserted that the people had a right to overthrow a tyrannical government that violated their fundamental rights
- Jefferson argued that "whenever any form of government becomes destructive" of the people's unalienable rights, "it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it"
- This right of revolution was presented as a last resort, only to be invoked after "a long train of abuses" and the exhaustion of all other remedies
Equality and unalienable rights
- Although "all men are created equal" is one of the most famous phrases in the Declaration, the document did not actually elaborate much on human equality
- The emphasis was more on the universality and inalienability of natural rights, which the colonists believed the British government had systematically violated
- The Declaration's sweeping language about equality and rights would later be invoked by groups like women, African-Americans, and workers seeking to expand the definition of freedom
Grievances against King George III
- The longest section of the Declaration was a point-by-point indictment of King George III's actions towards the American colonies
List of colonial complaints
- Jefferson presented a lengthy list of the "" committed by the king, whom he labeled a "tyrant"
- These grievances included imposing taxes without consent, suspending trial by jury, quartering troops in colonists' homes, and many other "" actions
- The list was intended to demonstrate that independence was justified by the king's "repeated injuries" and "usurpations" over many years
Justification for independence
- The grievances against the king were meant to show that he had violated the "" between the British government and the colonists
- By documenting these transgressions, the Declaration sought to prove that the king had rendered himself "unfit to be the ruler of a free people"
- Independence was therefore presented not as a radical step, but as a necessary response to the king's violations of the colonists' traditional British rights
Signers and legacy
- The Declaration of Independence had an immediate impact in 1776 and went on to become one of the most famous and influential documents in world history
Delegates who signed
- The Declaration was initially approved and signed only by John Hancock as president of the Congress
- Most of the other 55 delegates signed the document on August 2nd, with some additional signatures added even later
- The signers represented a cross-section of the colonial elite, including merchants, lawyers, planters, and other leading citizens
Immediate impact and reception
- The Declaration's adoption signaled the American colonies' formal break with Britain and the establishment of the United States as an independent nation
- It was immediately published and widely distributed, helping rally support for the Patriot cause both domestically and abroad
- However, the Declaration's high-minded principles did not reflect the realities of a society marked by slavery, limited rights for women, and restricted suffrage
Enduring significance and influence
- The Declaration became a key founding document of the United States, along with the Constitution and Bill of Rights
- Its language about natural rights, equality, and self-government inspired many later American reform movements as well as revolutionaries in other countries (French Revolution, Latin American independence movements)
- The Declaration also set a precedent for issuing formal justifications of independence that was followed by many later nationalist movements
Declaration vs other documents
- The Declaration of Independence was part of a broader process of establishing American self-government during the Revolutionary era
Comparison to state constitutions
- Many state governments issued their own constitutions and declarations of rights in 1776 and 1777, echoing the Declaration's natural rights language
- However, most state constitutions were more detailed and substantive than the Declaration, laying out specific governmental institutions and protections
- State constitutions also tended to invest more authority in legislatures as the voice of the people, in contrast to the Declaration's focus on universal rights
Contrast with Articles of Confederation
- The Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1777 and ratified in 1781, created the first national government for the United States
- In contrast to the Declaration's lofty philosophical rhetoric, the Articles were a more pragmatic and limiting document focused on the rights of states
- The Articles created only a weak national government with limited powers, reflecting the Declaration's distrust of centralized authority but setting the stage for later conflicts
Key Terms to Review (21)
1775: The year 1775 marks a critical turning point in American history, particularly in the context of rising tensions between the American colonies and Great Britain. It was during this year that significant events unfolded, including the outbreak of armed conflict at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which signified the start of the American Revolutionary War. These developments fueled the movement towards independence and set the stage for the eventual drafting of the Declaration of Independence in 1776.
Absolute tyranny: Absolute tyranny refers to a form of government where a ruler holds unchecked and absolute power, exercising authority without regard for the rights or liberties of the people. In the context of the struggle for independence, this concept highlights the colonists' grievances against British rule, which they perceived as oppressive and illegitimate. The Declaration of Independence explicitly addresses the issue of absolute tyranny, emphasizing the need for self-governance and the protection of individual rights.
American Revolution: The American Revolution was a conflict that took place between 1775 and 1783, resulting in the thirteen American colonies gaining independence from British rule. This transformative event was influenced by Enlightenment ideas about governance and rights, the Great Awakening's emphasis on individualism and questioning authority, key figures advocating for independence, and culminated in the Declaration of Independence.
Boston Tea Party: The Boston Tea Party was a political protest that took place on December 16, 1773, where American colonists, frustrated by British taxation without representation, dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor. This act of defiance was a direct response to the Tea Act of 1773 and escalated tensions between Britain and the colonies, ultimately contributing to the onset of the American Revolution.
Committee of five: The committee of five was a group formed by the Second Continental Congress in June 1776, tasked with drafting the Declaration of Independence. This committee played a crucial role in articulating the colonies' desire for independence from British rule and laid the foundational principles of American democracy.
Consent of the governed: Consent of the governed refers to the idea that a government's legitimacy and moral authority come from the consent of the people it governs. This concept emphasizes that individuals have natural rights and should agree to be governed, forming a social contract that can only be dissolved if those rights are threatened or violated. This principle connects deeply to Enlightenment ideas, including the importance of individual liberty and the responsibility of government to protect those rights, and it plays a crucial role in the development of democratic thought and political revolutions.
Declaration of Independence: The Declaration of Independence is a historic document adopted on July 4, 1776, that announced the American colonies' separation from British rule and outlined the principles of individual liberty and government accountability. This document embodies Enlightenment ideals by emphasizing natural rights, the social contract, and the importance of consent from the governed, all of which fueled the desire for independence and shaped the nation's foundation.
Injuries and usurpations: Injuries and usurpations refer to the wrongful acts and encroachments on individual rights and liberties, particularly by a governing authority. These terms are pivotal in the context of the Declaration of Independence, where they are used to describe the grievances that justified the colonies' break from British rule. The phrase highlights the violation of natural rights and the extent to which a government can become tyrannical through abuses of power.
John Adams: John Adams was a Founding Father and the second President of the United States, serving from 1797 to 1801. He played a crucial role in advocating for independence, contributing to key documents like the Declaration of Independence, and shaping early American government during his presidency. His actions and policies set important precedents for the future of the nation.
July 4, 1776: July 4, 1776, marks the date when the Continental Congress officially adopted the Declaration of Independence, announcing the thirteen American colonies' separation from British rule. This pivotal moment in history symbolizes the colonies' desire for self-governance and individual rights, setting the foundation for the United States as a sovereign nation.
King George III: King George III was the King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1760 until 1820, best known for his role during the American Revolution and the events leading up to it, including the Declaration of Independence. His reign was marked by escalating tensions between the American colonies and the British government, ultimately leading to a fundamental shift in the relationship between Britain and its colonies.
Legacy of freedom: The legacy of freedom refers to the enduring principles and ideals of liberty, equality, and self-governance that emerged from pivotal historical events, especially the Declaration of Independence. This legacy has shaped American identity and values, emphasizing individual rights and democratic governance while inspiring future movements for civil rights and social justice.
Natural rights: Natural rights are fundamental human rights that every individual possesses simply by being human, often described as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. These rights are believed to be inherent and inalienable, meaning they cannot be surrendered or taken away, forming the basis for various social contracts and government structures. This concept played a significant role in the ideological movements that shaped political thought and revolutions.
Quartering of troops: Quartering of troops refers to the practice of housing soldiers in private homes or buildings, often against the wishes of the homeowners. This practice became a significant point of contention leading up to the American Revolution, as colonists felt it infringed on their rights and privacy. The issue was explicitly addressed in the Declaration of Independence, highlighting the colonists' grievances against British rule and their desire for autonomy.
Ratification: Ratification is the formal approval or confirmation of a proposed law, treaty, or agreement, typically by a governing body or the people. This process is crucial in ensuring that a proposed legal framework has the necessary support to become binding. In the context of historical events, ratification can signify the final step in legitimizing documents and agreements that shape governance and society.
Republicanism: Republicanism is a political ideology centered on the belief that a government should be based on the consent of the governed and that representatives should be elected to serve the people. This principle emphasizes individual rights, civic virtue, and the importance of a social contract between citizens and their government, reflecting Enlightenment ideas about democracy and governance.
Second Continental Congress: The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that met from May 1775 to March 1781, acting as the de facto national government during the American Revolution. This assembly coordinated military efforts against British rule, ultimately leading to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and establishing key governmental functions for the newly emerging nation.
Social contract: A social contract is an implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and establish a government that protects their rights in exchange for some of their freedoms. This concept emphasizes the idea that the legitimacy of governmental authority derives from the consent of the governed, aligning closely with natural rights and the separation of powers, which were central themes during a period of enlightenment thinking.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state to govern itself or another state, and it encompasses the concept of ultimate power and control over a territory and its people. This term is essential in understanding the emergence of independent nations and their rights to self-determination, especially in historical contexts where colonization and imperialism challenged indigenous governance and autonomy. It plays a crucial role in the discussions surrounding independence movements and the displacement of populations.
Taxation without representation: Taxation without representation refers to the practice of imposing taxes on a population without granting them a voice in the legislative processes that create those taxes. This concept became a rallying cry for American colonists who felt that British Parliament's imposition of taxes violated their rights as English subjects, which directly contributed to rising tensions and eventual rebellion against British rule.
Thomas Jefferson: Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States and a Founding Father, known for drafting the Declaration of Independence and advocating for individual rights. His vision for America included promoting democracy, education, and westward expansion, which were pivotal in shaping the nation’s early years.