Political Philosophy Unit 11 Review: Rawls and Principles of Justice

Who Was John Rawls?

• American political and moral philosopher widely considered one of the most influential thinkers of the 20th century
• Born in 1921 in Baltimore, Maryland and passed away in 2002
• Earned his Ph.D. from Princeton University and taught at Cornell, MIT, and Harvard
• Most famous for his groundbreaking work "A Theory of Justice" published in 1971 which revitalized the social contract tradition
• Developed a comprehensive theory of justice that aimed to reconcile individual liberty with social equality
• Argued that principles of justice should be determined from an impartial perspective known as the "original position"
• His ideas have had a profound impact on political philosophy, ethics, and public policy debates

The Original Position and Veil of Ignorance

• Rawls proposed a thought experiment called the "original position" as a way to determine fair principles of justice
• In the original position, individuals are placed behind a "veil of ignorance" where they do not know their place in society
  • This includes not knowing their social status, wealth, talents, or conception of the good life
• The veil of ignorance ensures impartiality by preventing people from tailoring principles to benefit their own circumstances
• Rawls argued that in this hypothetical situation, rational individuals would choose principles that protect the least advantaged
  • They would do so out of self-interest, as they could end up being the least advantaged themselves
• The original position is a purely hypothetical construct designed to elicit our intuitions about fairness and justice
• Critics argue that the original position is too abstract and divorced from real-world considerations

Two Principles of Justice

• Rawls argued that in the original position, individuals would agree upon two basic principles of justice
  1. The Liberty Principle: Each person has an equal right to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme for all
  2. The Difference Principle: Social and economic inequalities must satisfy two conditions:
     • They must be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity
     • They must be to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society
• The two principles are lexically ordered, meaning the first principle must be satisfied before moving on to the second
• Rawls believed these principles would ensure a fair distribution of rights, opportunities, and resources in society
• The principles aim to balance individual freedom with the need to address social and economic inequalities

Liberty Principle Explained

• The Liberty Principle is the first and most important of Rawls' two principles of justice
• It states that each person has an equal right to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic liberties
  • Basic liberties include political liberties (right to vote, hold office), freedom of speech and assembly, liberty of conscience, and freedom of thought
• The principle requires that these liberties be equal for all citizens and as extensive as possible
• Rawls prioritized the Liberty Principle because he believed that basic freedoms are essential for individuals to pursue their own conceptions of the good life
• The principle allows for restrictions on liberty only when necessary to protect the liberties of others or to maintain public order
• Critics argue that Rawls' list of basic liberties is too narrow and fails to include important freedoms (e.g., economic liberties)

Difference Principle Unpacked

• The Difference Principle is the second part of Rawls' second principle of justice
• It states that social and economic inequalities are justifiable only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society
  • In other words, inequalities must work to the advantage of the worst-off
• Rawls argued that in the original position, individuals would choose this principle to ensure a social safety net
• The principle does not require strict equality, but rather that any inequalities must improve the position of the least well-off
  • For example, paying doctors more than janitors is acceptable if it leads to better healthcare for all, including the poor
• The Difference Principle is often interpreted as a justification for redistributive policies (progressive taxation, welfare programs)
• Critics argue that the principle fails to give sufficient weight to individual desert and may undermine economic incentives

Criticisms and Debates

• Rawls' theory has generated extensive commentary and criticism from philosophers, economists, and political theorists
• Libertarians (Robert Nozick) argue that Rawls' principles infringe on individual property rights and endorse unjustified redistribution
  • Nozick proposed an alternative entitlement theory of justice based on respecting voluntary transactions
• Communitarians (Michael Sandel) contend that Rawls' theory is too individualistic and neglects the importance of community values
  • They argue that justice must be grounded in shared understandings of the good life
• Feminist philosophers (Susan Moller Okin) have criticized Rawls for failing to adequately address issues of gender justice
  • They argue that the original position should take into account the family and gender roles
• Capability theorists (Amartya Sen) suggest that Rawls' focus on primary goods is insufficient and that we should instead prioritize human capabilities
• Despite these criticisms, Rawls' work remains highly influential and continues to shape debates in political philosophy and beyond

Real-World Applications

• Rawls' principles of justice have been applied to a wide range of real-world issues and policy debates
• In constitutional design, Rawls' ideas have influenced discussions of basic rights, separation of powers, and judicial review
  • South Africa's post-apartheid constitution reflects Rawlsian principles in its emphasis on equality and socioeconomic rights
• In discussions of economic policy, the Difference Principle is often invoked to justify progressive taxation and social welfare programs
  • Some argue that Scandinavian-style social democracy best approximates Rawls' vision of a just society
• Rawls' ideas have been applied to debates over global justice and the obligations of wealthy nations to assist poorer ones
  • Philosophers like Thomas Pogge have extended Rawls' framework to argue for global redistributive duties
• In education policy, Rawls' emphasis on fair equality of opportunity has informed arguments for investing in early childhood education and reducing achievement gaps
• While Rawls' theory is highly abstract, it continues to provide a powerful framework for thinking about real-world justice issues

Key Takeaways

• John Rawls was a highly influential 20th-century political philosopher best known for his work "A Theory of Justice"
• Rawls proposed a thought experiment called the "original position" in which individuals choose principles of justice from behind a "veil of ignorance"
• He argued that in this situation, individuals would agree on two principles of justice: the Liberty Principle and the Difference Principle
• The Liberty Principle requires equal basic liberties for all, while the Difference Principle allows inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged
• Rawls' theory has been widely debated and criticized by philosophers from various perspectives (libertarian, communitarian, feminist, capability)
• Despite these criticisms, Rawls' ideas continue to be highly influential and have been applied to a range of real-world policy issues
• Rawls' legacy lies in his powerful articulation of the social contract tradition and his emphasis on reconciling individual liberty with social equality
• Engaging with Rawls' work remains essential for anyone interested in questions of justice, equality, and political legitimacy