2.3 Torah Interpretation and Commentary

Key terms in Torah interpretation

Torah interpretation is central to Jewish life. Rather than treating the Torah as a text with one fixed meaning, Jewish tradition holds that every verse contains multiple layers waiting to be uncovered. This is what keeps a text thousands of years old relevant in every generation.

Levels of interpretation

Jewish scholars identify distinct levels at which any Torah passage can be read:

• Peshat is the literal or plain meaning of the text. This is the straightforward reading: what the words say on the surface, given their grammar and context.
• Derash (related to the word midrash) is the interpretive level that goes beyond the literal. It draws out moral lessons, legal rulings, or theological ideas that aren't obvious from the plain text alone.
• Sod is the secret or mystical meaning. This level draws on Kabbalistic tradition and looks for hidden spiritual truths and allegories beneath the surface.

The PaRDeS system

These levels are organized into a framework called PaRDeS, an acronym built from four Hebrew words:

1. Peshat (literal meaning)
2. Remez (allusion or hint, where a word or phrase subtly points to a deeper idea)
3. Derash (interpretive or homiletical meaning)
4. Sod (mystical or esoteric meaning)

The word pardes itself means "orchard" in Hebrew, which captures the idea of entering a rich, layered space of meaning. These four levels aren't competing with each other. They work together, each revealing something different about the same passage.

One more concept worth knowing here: the Oral Torah. Jewish tradition teaches that alongside the Written Torah (the text itself), God gave Moses an oral explanation that was passed down through generations. This Oral Torah, eventually recorded in the Mishnah and Talmud, is considered essential for understanding the full depth of the written text.

Role of Midrash in Torah interpretation

Midrash comes from a Hebrew root meaning "to investigate" or "to seek out." It refers to a large body of rabbinic literature that interprets and expands on the Torah, often in creative and surprising ways.

Expanding narratives

One of midrash's most distinctive functions is filling in gaps the Torah leaves open. The biblical text is often spare, and midrash supplies the missing details.

• It provides background for characters whose stories the Torah only partially tells. For example, midrashim describe Abraham smashing his father's idols as a child, even though this episode doesn't appear in the Torah itself. Other midrashim elaborate on Moses' early years in Pharaoh's court.
• It frequently draws moral and ethical lessons from the actions of biblical figures, deriving practical wisdom about hospitality, kindness, and faith from their stories.

Reconciling contradictions and revealing hidden meanings

The Torah sometimes presents details that seem to conflict with each other. Midrash addresses these tensions by offering additional context or explanations:

• Moses' father-in-law is called both Reuel and Jethro in different passages. Midrash explains why both names apply.
• The Ten Commandments appear in both Exodus and Deuteronomy with differences in wording. Midrash reconciles these variations rather than treating them as errors.

Some midrashim go further, uncovering allegorical and mystical meanings. Jacob's dream of a ladder reaching heaven, for instance, is read as a metaphor for prayer ascending to God. The splitting of the Sea of Reeds is interpreted as a symbol of personal transformation.

Well-known midrashic collections include Genesis Rabbah, Exodus Rabbah, and Midrash Tanhuma. Many of these are gathered in a larger anthology called the Midrash Rabbah.

Schools of Torah commentary: Rashi vs. Ramban

Over the centuries, major commentators developed distinct approaches to reading the Torah. Studying their differences is one of the best ways to see how the interpretive levels actually work in practice.

Rashi's commentary

Rashi (Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki, 1040–1105, France) wrote what became the most widely studied Torah commentary in Jewish history. His style is concise and focused primarily on peshat, explaining the plain meaning of difficult words and phrases. But he also weaves in midrash and Talmudic explanations where he feels they clarify the text.

Rashi's grandsons and their colleagues, known as the Tosafists, continued and expanded his work by adding glosses and further analysis to his commentaries.

Contrasting commentaries

Several other major commentators offer different perspectives, and comparing them to Rashi is a core part of Torah study:

• Ramban (Nahmanides, Rabbi Moshe ben Nahman, 1194–1270, Spain) frequently disagrees with Rashi's readings. His commentary incorporates philosophical reasoning and Kabbalistic ideas, finding symbolism and esoteric meaning where Rashi stays closer to the surface.
• Ibn Ezra (Rabbi Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra, 1092–1167, Spain) took a more rationalist approach. He relied heavily on Hebrew grammar and linguistic analysis to explain difficulties in the text, and he generally avoided midrashic or non-literal readings.
• Baal HaTurim (Rabbi Yaakov ben Asher, 1269–1343, Spain/Germany) used gematria, a technique that assigns numerical values to Hebrew letters and words. His commentary reveals patterns, connections between distant verses, and links to halakhic (legal) details.

Many of these commentaries are printed together in the margins of the Mikraot Gedolot (the "Great Scriptures," sometimes called the Rabbinic Bible). This format allows students to compare peshat, derash, rationalist, and mystical readings of the same passage side by side.

Applying interpretive techniques to Torah passages

When you sit down to analyze a Torah passage using these traditions, there's a natural progression to follow.

Examining peshat

1. Start with the peshat: read the passage carefully for its straightforward meaning.
2. Note key words, unusual phrases, or grammatical structures that stand out.
3. Consult classic commentaries like Rashi, Ramban, and Ibn Ezra to see how they explained the passage and which details they focused on.

Intertextual and midrashic analysis

1. Look for intertextual links: specific words or phrases that echo other Torah passages. These connections often shed light on meaning that isn't visible in the passage alone.
2. Check how the passage is treated in midrashic and Talmudic literature. These sources frequently add moral, ethical, and allegorical layers. For example, midrash describes Abraham's tent as open on all four sides to welcome travelers from every direction, turning a simple narrative detail into a lesson about radical hospitality. The manna in the wilderness is read not just as food but as spiritual sustenance.

Mystical and esoteric dimensions

1. Consider mystical interpretations from Kabbalistic sources and Hasidic masters. These often reveal spiritual and metaphysical dimensions. The creation account in Genesis, for instance, is read in Kabbalistic tradition as describing the unfolding of divine attributes, not just the physical origins of the world.
2. Synthesize insights from across the interpretive approaches. The goal isn't to pick one "correct" reading but to arrive at a multifaceted understanding. Plain meaning, rabbinic exegesis, philosophical ideas, and mystical allusions each contribute something different, and together they provide the kind of holistic analysis that defines Jewish Torah study.