1.2 Plateau tribes

Geographic distribution of tribes

Plateau tribes lived across a huge stretch of the inland Pacific Northwest, from British Columbia down to Oregon and from the Cascade Mountains east to the Rockies. This region isn't one uniform landscape. It includes rolling grasslands, deep river canyons, semi-arid plains, and forested highlands. The specific environment each tribe inhabited shaped everything about their culture, from what they ate to how they built their homes.

Major plateau regions

• The Columbia Plateau covered the largest area, defined by rolling hills, deep river valleys, and a dry climate. This was the heartland of Plateau culture.
• The Okanogan Highlands in northeastern Washington featured mountainous terrain and numerous lakes, supporting tribes with access to both upland and aquatic resources.
• The Blue Mountains region in southeastern Washington and northeastern Oregon offered diverse ecosystems ranging from dense forests to open grasslands.
• The Snake River Plain extended into southern Idaho, providing a distinct environment for tribes living along that corridor.

Tribal territories and boundaries

• The Nez Perce occupied a large territory spanning parts of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, centered on the Clearwater and Snake River drainages.
• The Yakama inhabited the area around the Yakima River and its tributaries in central Washington.
• The Umatilla controlled lands along the Columbia River and its tributaries in northeastern Oregon and southeastern Washington.
• The Spokane resided in the area surrounding the Spokane River in eastern Washington.
• The Colville Confederated Tribes comprised several smaller groups occupying north-central Washington.

Boundaries between tribal territories were generally fluid. They were based on traditional use areas and long-standing agreements rather than rigid borders, and neighboring groups often shared access to key resource sites.

Cultural characteristics

Plateau tribes shared many cultural similarities because of their common environment and frequent interactions, but each tribe maintained its own distinct traditions. Nearly every aspect of Plateau culture was tied to the natural world, reflecting a deep relationship with the land and its resources.

Social structure

Extended family units formed the basic building block of Plateau society, with several families often living together in villages. Many tribes organized themselves through clan systems, with membership typically traced through the mother's line (matrilineal descent).

Social status varied within communities. Chiefs, spiritual leaders, and people with specialized skills held higher standing. Gender roles tended to be complementary: men focused on hunting and fishing, while women managed gathering and food processing. Elders were widely respected for their accumulated wisdom and experience.

Religious beliefs and practices

Plateau peoples held an animistic worldview, meaning they believed all living things and natural forces possessed spiritual qualities. Several key practices reflected this belief:

• Vision quests served as rites of passage for young people seeking spiritual guidance and personal power.
• Sweat lodge ceremonies purified body and spirit, often conducted before important events or as part of healing.
• Seasonal ceremonies marked major transitions in the yearly cycle. The First Salmon Ceremony honored the return of salmon runs, and the Root Feast celebrated the spring harvest.
• Shamans (medicine people) played central roles as healers and spiritual intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds.

Traditional customs and ceremonies

• Potlatches were elaborate gift-giving feasts used to redistribute wealth and affirm social standing within and between communities.
• Naming ceremonies gave individuals important personal and spiritual identities.
• Marriage customs typically involved gift exchanges between families and community celebrations.
• Funeral practices included complex mourning rituals guided by beliefs about the afterlife.
• Coming-of-age ceremonies marked the transition into adulthood for both boys and girls.

Economic activities

Plateau tribes built diverse economies by combining fishing, hunting, gathering, and trade. These activities followed seasonal patterns closely, shifting as different resources became available across the landscape throughout the year.

Fishing and hunting practices

Salmon fishing was the economic cornerstone for many Plateau tribes. They used sophisticated techniques including fish weirs (fence-like structures placed in rivers), dip nets, and spears. The timing of seasonal salmon runs dictated when major economic activities and social gatherings took place.

Hunting targeted large game like deer, elk, and bighorn sheep, using bows and arrows or spears. On the eastern edges of Plateau territory, some groups organized communal hunting drives to capture bison more efficiently. Tribes preserved fish and meat through smoking and drying, building up stores for winter use and trade.

Gathering of plant resources

Plant gathering was just as essential as fishing and hunting:

• Root vegetables like camas, bitterroot, and wild onions were harvested using specialized digging sticks. Camas in particular was a dietary staple.
• Berries such as huckleberries, chokecherries, and serviceberries were collected in large quantities during late summer and fall.
• Medicinal plants were gathered and processed for traditional healing.
• Bark and plant fibers provided raw materials for baskets, clothing, and other goods.

Tribes followed seasonal rounds, moving through their territory on a regular schedule to access different plant resources as they ripened throughout the year.

Trade networks and relationships

Plateau tribes maintained extensive trade networks connecting them with both coastal and Plains peoples. The Dalles on the Columbia River functioned as one of the largest trade hubs in North America, where groups from many different regions came together to exchange goods.

Common trade items included dried salmon, animal hides, obsidian (a volcanic glass used for tools), and shells from the coast. Intertribal gatherings, often timed to coincide with fishing seasons, doubled as opportunities for trade and cultural exchange. The introduction of horses in the 18th century dramatically expanded the range and scale of trade, transforming Plateau economies and inter-tribal relationships.

Language and communication

The Plateau region was linguistically diverse, with multiple language families represented across different tribal territories. Oral traditions carried the weight of preserving history, cultural knowledge, and spiritual teachings from one generation to the next.

Linguistic families

• Salishan languages dominated the northern Plateau, including Spokane, Colville, and Coeur d'Alene.
• Sahaptian languages were spoken in the southern Plateau, including Nez Perce and Yakama.
• Chinookan languages were found along the Columbia River and had significant influence on trade communication.
• Ktunaxa (Kutenai) is a language isolate, meaning it has no known relationship to any other language. It was spoken by tribes in the northeastern Plateau.

Multilingualism was common among Plateau peoples. Frequent trade, travel, and intermarriage between groups meant many individuals spoke two or more languages.

Oral traditions and storytelling

• Creation stories explained the origins of the world, people, and important features of the landscape.
• Coyote tales were especially prominent, serving as both entertainment and a way to pass along moral and practical lessons. Coyote appears as a trickster figure who is clever but often foolish.
• Historical narratives preserved accounts of important events, migrations, and tribal histories.
• Seasonal stories were told at specific times of year, reinforcing knowledge about resource gathering and spiritual practices.

Storytelling was a performance art. Tellers used gestures, songs, and audience participation to make stories memorable and engaging.

Tribal governance

Plateau tribes developed governance systems tailored to their specific needs. Leadership combined practical ability with moral and spiritual authority, and decision-making tended to emphasize community input over top-down control.

Leadership structures

• Hereditary chiefs often held authority, especially in larger tribes or confederations, but their power was rarely absolute.
• Councils of elders advised chiefs and participated in major decisions.
• War chiefs were chosen based on demonstrated leadership in conflict, separate from peacetime leaders.
• Spiritual leaders (shamans, medicine people) held significant influence in tribal affairs.
• Women's councils existed in some tribes, providing input on community matters.

Decision-making processes

Most Plateau tribes favored consensus-based decision-making, where leaders sought broad agreement rather than imposing decisions. Villages or bands typically governed themselves day to day, coming together as larger tribal units for specific purposes like warfare or trade negotiations.

Public discussions and debates addressed important community issues. Seasonal gatherings provided a forum for inter-village or inter-tribal decisions. When disputes arose, respected elders or neutral third parties often served as mediators.

Inter-tribal relations

• Alliances formed for mutual defense, shared resource access, and trade.
• Marriage alliances between families of different tribes strengthened diplomatic ties.
• Intertribal gatherings facilitated cultural exchange, conflict resolution, and collective decision-making.
• Rivalries and conflicts did occur, often over resource competition or historical grievances.
• Formal diplomatic protocols developed over time to manage relationships between groups.

Seasonal patterns

Plateau life revolved around the changing seasons. Tribes moved through their territories on a predictable annual cycle, positioning themselves to take advantage of different resources as they became available.

Nomadic vs. sedentary lifestyles

Most Plateau tribes followed a semi-nomadic pattern. They maintained permanent winter villages in sheltered river valleys, where they were protected from harsh weather. In spring and summer, they moved to upland camps near root-gathering grounds and berry patches. Fall brought a return to major rivers for salmon fishing camps.

Some groups with access to especially abundant river resources lived more sedentary lives year-round, but seasonal movement was the norm for most Plateau peoples.

Seasonal resource gathering

• Spring: Harvesting early plant foods (bitterroot, wild onions) and hunting migrating waterfowl.
• Summer: Intensive root gathering in mountain meadows and prairies.
• Late summer/fall: Salmon fishing, berry picking, and hunting large game like deer and elk.
• Winter: Relying on stored foods, limited hunting, and spending time on indoor activities like crafts and storytelling.

The ceremonial calendar aligned with this seasonal cycle. Ceremonies marked important transitions, such as the arrival of the first salmon or the ripening of the first roots.

Material culture

Plateau tribes created tools, shelters, and clothing finely adapted to their environment. Their craftsmanship reflected both practical ingenuity and deep ecological knowledge.

Housing and architecture

• Pit houses (semi-subterranean dwellings dug partially into the ground) served as primary winter homes. The earth insulation kept them warm in cold months.
• Tule mat lodges were used as temporary summer dwellings. Made from woven bulrush mats over a pole frame, they were lightweight and easy to transport.
• Longhouses were built in some areas for communal gatherings and ceremonies.
• Sweat lodges were small, enclosed structures built specifically for purification rituals.
• Storage structures like elevated platforms and underground caches protected food supplies from animals and weather.

Tools and technology

• Fishing technology: Elaborate weirs, nets, spears, and fish traps designed for different river conditions.
• Hunting tools: Bows and arrows, spears, and snares tailored for specific game animals.
• Plant processing tools: Digging sticks for roots, grinding stones for seeds and dried foods, and baskets for collecting and storing.
• Hide working tools: Scrapers and awls for turning animal skins into clothing and leather goods.
• Watercraft: Sturgeon-nosed canoes and rafts adapted for river travel and fishing.

Clothing and adornment

Everyday clothing was made primarily from animal hides (deer, elk) and plant fibers. Winter garments included fur-lined robes, leggings, and moccasins. Summer clothing was lighter, often just breechcloths or simple dresses.

Ceremonial attire was far more elaborate, featuring intricate beadwork, quillwork, and decorative fringes. Personal adornment included jewelry crafted from shells, bones, and local stones, along with body painting for special occasions.

Impact of European contact

European contact fundamentally changed life for Plateau tribes. New diseases, technologies, and economic pressures reshaped traditional ways of living, sometimes within a single generation.

Disease and population decline

Smallpox was the most devastating introduced disease, with some estimates suggesting population losses of up to 90% in affected communities. Measles, influenza, and other European diseases compounded the damage. These losses went far beyond numbers: they disrupted social structures, broke chains of knowledge transmission, and wiped out entire villages. Some smaller tribal groups became extinct or were forced to merge with larger tribes to survive. The resulting demographic shifts altered power dynamics both among tribes and between tribes and incoming settlers.

Changes in traditional practices

• The introduction of horses in the early 1700s revolutionized transportation, hunting (especially bison hunting), and warfare.
• Firearms changed both hunting techniques and the nature of inter-tribal conflicts.
• European trade goods like glass beads and metal tools were quickly incorporated into traditional crafts and daily life.
• Christian missionaries influenced religious beliefs, leading some communities to develop syncretic traditions blending indigenous and Christian elements.
• European agricultural practices were gradually adopted by some tribes, altering traditional food systems.

Fur trade influence

The establishment of fur trading posts like Fort Nez Perces and Fort Colville created new economic opportunities. Plateau tribes became important middlemen in the fur trade network, connecting European traders with resources from the interior.

This new economy shifted some traditional hunting and trapping practices toward fur-bearing animals. Trade goods like metal tools, textiles, and firearms were rapidly integrated into Plateau material culture. Over time, economic dependence on the fur trade brought significant social and political changes within tribal societies.

Treaties and reservations

The treaty-making process between Plateau tribes and the U.S. government permanently altered tribal territories and sovereignty. Reservations replaced traditional land use patterns, with consequences that persist today.

Major treaties with U.S. government

• The 1855 Yakama Treaty consolidated 14 bands and tribes onto a single reservation.
• The 1855 Walla Walla Council, led by Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens, produced treaties with the Nez Perce, Umatilla, and other tribes.
• The 1855 Hellgate Treaty established reservations for the Flathead, Kootenai, and Upper Pend d'Oreilles.
• The 1863 Nez Perce Treaty drastically reduced the size of the original 1855 reservation, stripping away roughly 90% of Nez Perce land. This treaty was deeply controversial and not agreed to by all Nez Perce bands.
• Many smaller tribes were never formally recognized through treaties, creating legal challenges that continue today.

Establishment of reservations

• The Colville Reservation was created by executive order in 1872. It initially excluded some tribes that were later added.
• The Spokane Reservation was established in 1881 after years of resistance and negotiation.
• The Coeur d'Alene Reservation was formalized in 1873, covering a fraction of the tribe's traditional territory.
• Some tribes, like the Kalispel and Lower Spokane, received very small reservations or became effectively landless.

Reservation boundaries were often drawn arbitrarily, ignoring traditional use areas and kinship ties between communities.

Loss of ancestral lands

Treaty cessions forced tribes to give up access to vast territories and the diverse resources within them. Traditional seasonal rounds were disrupted by confinement to reservation boundaries. Sacred sites and culturally significant locations were frequently excluded from reservation lands.

The Dawes Act of 1887 (the allotment policy) further fragmented tribal lands by dividing communal reservation land into individual parcels, with "surplus" land opened to non-Native settlement. The combined loss of land base severely damaged traditional economies and cultural practices.

Modern plateau tribes

Contemporary Plateau tribal nations have navigated enormous change while working to maintain cultural continuity. Language revitalization, cultural preservation, and the exercise of tribal sovereignty define much of their current work.

Contemporary tribal nations

• The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation includes 12 bands from various Plateau groups.
• The Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation represents 14 originally distinct tribes and bands.
• The Nez Perce Tribe maintains reservation lands in Idaho with strong connections to ancestral territories in Washington.
• The Spokane Tribe of Indians continues to reside on a portion of their traditional lands in eastern Washington.
• The Coeur d'Alene Tribe operates as a sovereign nation with reservation lands in northern Idaho.

Cultural revitalization efforts

• Language immersion programs work to preserve and revitalize indigenous languages, many of which have few remaining fluent speakers.
• Traditional arts like basketry and beadwork are promoted through educational programs and markets.
• Seasonal ceremonies and gatherings have been revived to strengthen cultural identity and community bonds.
• Tribal museums and cultural centers preserve historical artifacts and share tribal history with both members and the public.
• Youth programs connect younger generations with traditional practices, values, and elders.

Economic development initiatives

• Casino gaming provides significant revenue for many Plateau tribes, funding tribal services and infrastructure.
• Sustainable resource management on reservation lands includes forestry and fisheries programs.
• Tourism initiatives showcase cultural heritage and the natural beauty of tribal territories.
• Renewable energy projects (solar, wind) have been developed on some reservations.
• Tribal educational institutions provide culturally relevant higher education opportunities for community members.

Environmental stewardship

Plateau tribes bring centuries of ecological knowledge to modern conservation challenges. Their traditional practices offer tested models for sustainable resource management that remain relevant today.

Traditional ecological knowledge

Plateau peoples developed detailed understanding of plant and animal life cycles, which informed sustainable harvesting practices. Fire management was a key tool: controlled burns maintained healthy ecosystems, cleared underbrush, and encouraged the growth of food plants like camas.

Water management systems supported fishing and small-scale agriculture. A holistic worldview recognized the interconnectedness of all living systems, and oral traditions preserved and transmitted this ecological knowledge across generations.

Conservation practices

• Selective harvesting ensured plant resources could regenerate.
• Fishing techniques and timing were aligned with salmon life cycles to maintain healthy populations.
• Hunting practices included taboos and restrictions that prevented overharvesting of game.
• Waste minimization was emphasized through full use of harvested plants and animals.
• Seasonal rounds distributed resource use across diverse ecosystems, preventing any single area from being depleted.

Modern environmental challenges

• Climate change is altering precipitation patterns and increasing wildfire frequency, threatening traditional resources like salmon and root plants.
• Water rights disputes arise from competing demands for limited water in the region.
• Habitat loss threatens culturally significant plant and animal species.
• Environmental contamination from industrial activities has impacted some tribal lands and waterways.
• Collaborative management efforts between tribes and government agencies are addressing these complex issues, increasingly incorporating traditional ecological knowledge alongside Western science.