Native American Studies Unit 10 ReviewBoarding Schools: Assimilation Policies

Historical Context

• In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the U.S. government implemented policies aimed at assimilating Native American children into Euro-American culture
• Assimilation policies were rooted in the belief that Native American cultures were inferior and that Indigenous people needed to be "civilized" to survive in modern society
• The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 provided funding for the education of Native Americans, setting the stage for the establishment of boarding schools
• The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the relocation of Native American tribes to reservations, disrupting traditional ways of life and making children more vulnerable to removal from their families
• In 1879, Captain Richard Henry Pratt founded the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, which became a model for subsequent off-reservation boarding schools
  • Pratt's philosophy was to "kill the Indian, save the man," emphasizing the eradication of Native American culture and identity
• The Dawes Act of 1887 further undermined Native American sovereignty and cultural traditions by dividing tribal lands into individual allotments and promoting assimilation through land ownership and farming

Policies and Objectives

• The primary objective of boarding school policies was to assimilate Native American children into Euro-American culture and society
• Boarding schools aimed to strip children of their Native American identities, languages, and cultural practices while instilling Euro-American values, beliefs, and behaviors
• Government officials and reformers believed that removing children from their families and communities was necessary to achieve assimilation
• Boarding schools were designed to prepare Native American children for manual labor and domestic roles in white society rather than providing a comprehensive education
• Attendance at boarding schools was often mandatory, with children being forcibly removed from their families by Indian agents and law enforcement
• The Compulsory Indian Education Act of 1891 authorized the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to enforce attendance at boarding schools, further eroding tribal sovereignty and parental rights
• Policies also aimed to undermine Native American languages by prohibiting their use in boarding schools and punishing children who spoke their native tongues

Types of Boarding Schools

• Off-reservation boarding schools were located far from Native American communities, making it difficult for children to maintain contact with their families and cultures
  • Examples include Carlisle Indian Industrial School (Pennsylvania), Haskell Institute (Kansas), and Chilocco Indian Agricultural School (Oklahoma)
• On-reservation boarding schools were located on or near Native American reservations but still separated children from their families and traditional ways of life
  • Examples include Chemawa Indian School (Oregon) and Sherman Institute (California)
• Day schools were located on reservations and allowed children to return home in the evenings, but still focused on assimilation and cultural suppression
• Mission schools were operated by various religious denominations and combined assimilation efforts with religious indoctrination
  • Examples include St. Joseph's Indian School (Wisconsin) and Holy Rosary Mission (South Dakota)
• Government-run schools were directly operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and followed standardized curricula and policies
• Contract schools were operated by religious organizations but received federal funding and were subject to government oversight

Daily Life and Experiences

• Children were typically separated from siblings and grouped by age and gender, disrupting family bonds and support systems
• Daily life was highly regimented, with strict schedules for classes, work, meals, and recreation
• Children were required to wear Euro-American clothing and hairstyles, abandoning traditional dress and appearance
• Physical labor was a significant component of daily life, with children working in fields, workshops, and domestic settings to maintain the schools and prepare for manual labor roles
• Academic instruction often focused on basic literacy and numeracy skills rather than providing a comprehensive education
• Children were subjected to harsh discipline, including corporal punishment, for infractions such as speaking their native languages or engaging in traditional cultural practices
• Malnutrition, disease, and poor living conditions were common in boarding schools, leading to high rates of illness and mortality among students
• Sexual, physical, and emotional abuse by staff members was widespread, leaving lasting trauma on many survivors

Cultural Suppression Methods

• Native American children were forced to abandon their traditional names and adopt English names, erasing their cultural identities
• Speaking Native American languages was strictly prohibited, with children being punished for using their native tongues
  • Punishments included corporal punishment, withholding of meals, and isolation
• Traditional clothing, hairstyles, and personal adornments were confiscated and replaced with Euro-American styles, further eroding cultural identity
• Native American spiritual practices and ceremonies were suppressed, with children being forced to attend Christian religious services and adopt Christian beliefs
• Traditional foods were replaced with Euro-American diets, disrupting cultural connections to land, seasons, and community
• Children were taught to view their Native American cultures as inferior and primitive, internalizing negative stereotypes and shame about their heritage
• Family visits were limited or prohibited, severing ties to community and cultural support systems
• Boarding school curricula emphasized Euro-American history, literature, and values while omitting or denigrating Native American knowledge and perspectives

Resistance and Survival Strategies

• Many Native American children resisted assimilation efforts by maintaining their cultural identities and practices in secret
  • Speaking native languages in private, sharing traditional stories and knowledge, and preserving cultural artifacts
• Some children ran away from boarding schools, risking punishment and hardship to return to their families and communities
• Families and communities fought against the removal of their children, hiding them from authorities or advocating for their return
• Native American leaders and activists protested boarding school policies and worked to assert tribal sovereignty and cultural rights
  • Examples include Zitkala-Sa (Yankton Dakota) and Dr. Carlos Montezuma (Yavapai)
• Some former boarding school students used their education to become advocates for Native American rights and cultural preservation
  • Examples include Dr. Susan La Flesche Picotte (Omaha) and Henry Roe Cloud (Ho-Chunk)
• Native American communities maintained cultural traditions and languages through underground networks and intergenerational knowledge sharing
• Resistance also took the form of cultural adaptation and innovation, with Native American communities finding ways to blend traditional practices with modern realities

Long-Term Impacts

• The boarding school era resulted in the loss of Native American languages, cultural knowledge, and traditional skills for many individuals and communities
• Intergenerational trauma from the abuse, neglect, and cultural suppression experienced in boarding schools continues to affect Native American families and communities
  • Higher rates of substance abuse, mental health issues, and domestic violence are linked to the boarding school legacy
• The erosion of cultural identity and self-esteem has contributed to ongoing challenges in education, employment, and social mobility for Native American individuals
• The boarding school system disrupted traditional family structures and parenting practices, leading to a cycle of dysfunction and disconnection in some communities
• The loss of land and resources during the boarding school era has had lasting economic impacts on Native American communities, contributing to ongoing poverty and marginalization
• The legacy of boarding schools has strained relationships between Native American communities and educational institutions, leading to mistrust and barriers to educational attainment
• The trauma and cultural loss experienced in boarding schools have influenced Native American literature, art, and activism, serving as a catalyst for cultural reclamation and political resistance

Modern Perspectives and Healing

• In recent decades, Native American communities have increasingly advocated for acknowledgment, accountability, and reparations for the harms caused by the boarding school system
• The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 aimed to protect Native American children from removal from their families and communities, recognizing the importance of cultural connections
• The Native American Languages Act of 1990 and the Esther Martinez Native American Languages Preservation Act of 2006 have supported the revitalization of Native American languages and cultural practices
• Many former boarding school sites have been repurposed as cultural centers, museums, and educational institutions focused on Native American history and healing
  • Examples include the Heard Museum (Phoenix, Arizona) and the Ziibiwing Center of Anishinabe Culture & Lifeways (Mount Pleasant, Michigan)
• Truth and reconciliation efforts, such as Canada's Truth and Reconciliation Commission, have sought to acknowledge the abuses of the boarding school system and work towards healing and cultural restoration
• Intergenerational dialogue and storytelling have become important tools for processing the trauma of the boarding school era and reconnecting with cultural identity
• Culturally responsive education models, such as language immersion schools and tribal colleges, have emerged as alternatives to the assimilationist approach of boarding schools
• Art, literature, and media created by Native American artists and scholars have played a crucial role in raising awareness about the boarding school legacy and promoting cultural pride and resilience