6.6 The Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution transformed society through groundbreaking innovations in steel, electricity, and transportation. This period of rapid technological advancement reshaped economies, urbanized populations, and sparked new social dynamics.

From mass production to labor movements, the impacts of this era were far-reaching. The revolution laid the foundation for modern industry, altered global power structures, and set the stage for future technological progress.

Origins of the Second Industrial Revolution

• The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, began in the mid-19th century and lasted until the early 20th century
• Built upon the advancements of the First Industrial Revolution, which focused on textiles, steam power, and iron production
• Characterized by rapid industrialization, technological innovation, and significant social, economic, and cultural changes

more resources to help you study

practice questions

Key innovations and technologies

Bessemer process for steel production

• Invented by Henry Bessemer in 1856, the Bessemer process greatly reduced the cost and time required to produce steel
• Involved blowing air through molten pig iron to remove impurities, resulting in stronger and more durable steel
• Enabled the mass production of steel, which became essential for construction, transportation, and manufacturing

Electricity and its applications

• The development of electricity as a power source revolutionized industry and daily life
• Inventions such as the light bulb (Thomas Edison) and alternating current (Nikola Tesla) made electricity more practical and accessible
• Electric power enabled the growth of factories, improved lighting, and facilitated the development of new technologies (telegraph, telephone)

Chemical industry advancements

• The chemical industry experienced significant growth during this period, with the development of new synthetic materials and processes
• Synthetic dyes, fertilizers, and pharmaceuticals were among the key innovations
• The Haber-Bosch process, invented in 1909, allowed for the mass production of ammonia, a crucial component in fertilizers and explosives

Developments in transportation

• The Second Industrial Revolution saw major advancements in transportation, both on land and at sea
• The expansion of railroad networks and the invention of the internal combustion engine led to the growth of the automobile industry
• Steam-powered ships and the opening of the Suez Canal (1869) revolutionized maritime trade and travel

Economic and social impacts

Rise of mass production and consumerism

• Technological advancements enabled the mass production of goods, making them more affordable and accessible to a wider population
• The growth of advertising and marketing techniques fueled consumerism and the desire for new products
• Department stores and mail-order catalogs emerged, changing the way people shopped and consumed goods

Urbanization and population growth

• The Second Industrial Revolution led to rapid urbanization, as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of employment in factories
• Cities experienced significant population growth, leading to the development of new infrastructure (public transportation, sanitation systems)
• Urban living conditions often remained poor, with overcrowding, pollution, and inadequate housing

Changes in labor and working conditions

• Factory work during the Second Industrial Revolution was often characterized by long hours, low wages, and dangerous conditions
• Child labor and the exploitation of workers were common, as labor laws and regulations were limited or non-existent
• The rise of scientific management (Taylorism) aimed to increase efficiency and productivity in the workplace, often at the expense of worker well-being

Emergence of new social classes

• The Second Industrial Revolution led to the growth of a new middle class, consisting of professionals, managers, and white-collar workers
• The working class, composed of factory laborers and low-skilled workers, also expanded significantly
• Income inequality and social stratification became more pronounced, with a widening gap between the wealthy industrialists and the working poor

Spread of industrialization

Industrialization in Europe

• The Second Industrial Revolution spread rapidly throughout Europe, with countries like Germany, France, and Belgium experiencing significant industrial growth
• Germany emerged as a major industrial power, with advancements in chemicals, steel production, and electrical engineering
• The United Kingdom, the birthplace of the First Industrial Revolution, continued to be a leader in industry and global trade

Industrialization in the United States

• The United States underwent rapid industrialization during the Second Industrial Revolution, surpassing the United Kingdom as the world's leading industrial power by the early 20th century
• The growth of railroads, the expansion of the steel industry, and the rise of large corporations (Standard Oil, U.S. Steel) characterized American industrialization
• Innovations such as the assembly line (Henry Ford) and the development of interchangeable parts further accelerated mass production and efficiency

Global economic integration and trade

• The Second Industrial Revolution facilitated greater global economic integration, as improved transportation and communication networks connected markets and resources worldwide
• International trade expanded significantly, with the exchange of raw materials, manufactured goods, and capital across borders
• Colonial empires and the global division of labor emerged, with industrialized nations exploiting the resources and labor of their colonies

Political and cultural consequences

Growth of capitalism and free markets

• The Second Industrial Revolution was characterized by the growth of capitalism and the belief in free markets and limited government intervention
• Laissez-faire economics, which emphasized the importance of individual initiative and competition, gained prominence
• The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few industrialists led to the rise of monopolies and trusts

Rise of labor movements and unions

• The poor working conditions and exploitation of workers during the Second Industrial Revolution led to the rise of labor movements and trade unions
• Workers organized to demand better wages, shorter working hours, and improved safety standards
• Strikes, collective bargaining, and political activism became important tools for workers to assert their rights and influence policy

Imperialism and colonial expansion

• The Second Industrial Revolution fueled the growth of imperialism and colonial expansion, as industrialized nations sought new markets, raw materials, and investment opportunities
• The "Scramble for Africa" in the late 19th century saw European powers divide and colonize much of the African continent
• Colonial exploitation and the global division of labor became integral to the functioning of the global economy

Influence on art, literature, and culture

• The Second Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on art, literature, and culture, as artists and writers grappled with the rapid changes in society
• The Realist and Naturalist movements in literature depicted the harsh realities of industrial life and the struggles of the working class (Émile Zola, Charles Dickens)
• Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in art captured the changing urban landscapes and the effects of industrialization on everyday life (Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh)

Legacy and long-term effects

Foundation for modern industrial societies

• The Second Industrial Revolution laid the foundation for modern industrial societies, with the advancements in technology, production, and transportation shaping the world we live in today
• Many of the innovations and industries that emerged during this period continue to play a central role in the global economy (steel, chemicals, automobiles)
• The organizational structures and management practices developed during the Second Industrial Revolution still influence how businesses operate

Environmental impacts and concerns

• The rapid industrialization and growth of the Second Industrial Revolution had significant environmental consequences, including air and water pollution, deforestation, and the depletion of natural resources
• The burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal, contributed to the rise in greenhouse gas emissions and the beginnings of anthropogenic climate change
• The environmental legacy of the Second Industrial Revolution continues to shape debates around sustainability, conservation, and the transition to cleaner energy sources

Influence on global power dynamics

• The Second Industrial Revolution altered global power dynamics, with industrialized nations gaining a significant advantage over non-industrialized countries
• The United States and Germany emerged as new industrial powers, challenging the dominance of the United Kingdom
• The uneven spread of industrialization and the exploitation of colonies contributed to the widening gap between the Global North and the Global South

Setting the stage for future technological advancements

• The Second Industrial Revolution set the stage for future technological advancements, as the innovations and discoveries of this period served as the foundation for later developments
• The growth of the electrical industry and the development of new materials paved the way for the electronics and digital revolutions of the 20th and 21st centuries
• The Second Industrial Revolution also highlighted the importance of scientific research and development in driving technological progress and economic growth