1. How has world population growth changed since 1800, and what does the UN predict for 2100?

2. What trend does U.S. population growth show from 1790 to 2020, and how has the rate of growth changed?

1. Why is total fertility rate (TFR) considered a more accurate reflection of cultural norms than crude birth rate (CBR)?

2. How has total fertility rate changed historically, and what explains the high TFR in pre-1800 Europe despite slow population growth?

1. What is the relationship between life expectancy and population growth, and how has global life expectancy changed over the past century?

2. How does infant mortality rate affect life expectancy, and what factors have reduced infant mortality?

1. What economic, political, and technological changes have contributed to increased life expectancy?

1. What agricultural advances over the past 250 years have improved food security and life expectancy?

2. How did increased farming efficiency affect urbanization and the structure of rural communities?

1. How did the creation of sewer systems and water treatment plants reduce mortality in industrial cities?

2. What role did public sanitation departments play in reducing disease transmission?

1. How did Edward Jenner's work with vaccination lead to the eradication of smallpox and development of other vaccines?

2. What impact did antibiotics, particularly penicillin, have on mortality rates and life expectancy?

3. How have improvements in medical procedures extended life expectancy for both mothers and patients with serious illnesses?

1. What is the rate of natural increase (RNI) and how is it calculated using crude birth rate and crude death rate?

2. How do RNI rates differ between more-developed and less-developed countries?

1. What is the difference between arithmetic growth and exponential growth, and which type has characterized global population since 1800?

2. How does the Rule of 70 help demographers estimate population doubling time?

1. What economic and social changes drive countries through the stages of the demographic transition model?

2. How does the natural increase rate change across the five stages of the DTM?

1. How does the shape of a population pyramid reflect the stage of demographic transition a country is in?

2. What does an expansive population pyramid indicate about birth rates and life expectancy?

3. What is demographic momentum and why does population continue to grow even after fertility rates decline?

1. What different resource challenges do Stage 2-3 countries face compared to Stage 4-5 countries?

1. How can the demographic transition model be applied at regional or local scales within a country?

1. Why does the DTM explain the experiences of Western Europe, the United States, and Japan better than less-developed countries?

2. What factors limit the applicability of the DTM to less-developed countries today?

1. What is the epidemiological transition model and how does it extend the demographic transition model?

2. How do the causes of death change across the five stages of the epidemiological transition model?

3. How did the COVID-19 pandemic challenge assumptions of the epidemiological transition model?

1. How did Malthus believe food production and population would grow differently, and what did he predict would result?

2. What checks did Malthus believe would limit population growth if people could not voluntarily reduce births?

1. Why did the famines predicted by Malthus not occur?

2. How does Boserup theory differ from Malthusian theory in its view of population growth?

1. What do neo-Malthusians argue about current and future population growth?

2. How could the Sahel region of Africa represent a Malthusian scenario?

1. What was China's 'later, longer, fewer' policy and what effects did it have on fertility rates?

2. What was China's One-child policy and what unintended consequences did it create?

3. How did gender preference in Chinese culture interact with the One-child policy to create demographic imbalances?

1. Why do some cultures prefer male children, and what demographic consequences has this created in countries like China and India?

2. What structural changes does the World Health Organization recommend to increase the perceived value of girls?

1. Why did China modify its One-child policy in 2016, and what concerns prompted this change?

2. What other targeted population-control programs have countries used besides comprehensive policies like China's?

1. Why have some highly developed countries adopted pronatalist policies, and what specific programs do they offer?

2. How has Singapore's population policy changed over time, and what does this reveal about shifting demographic priorities?

3. How can immigration policy be used as a tool to influence population growth and composition?

1. What factors caused Europeans beginning in the mid-18th century to have fewer children?

2. How did industrialization and urbanization contribute to lower fertility rates?

1. How has increased education for women affected fertility rates and marriage age?

2. What relationship exists between years of schooling for girls and total fertility rate in Ghana?

1. How have access to family planning methods and changes in technology affected fertility rates in developed countries?

2. How do religious and cultural values influence attitudes toward family planning and fertility rates?

3. What combination of factors has proven most powerful in reducing total fertility rates?

1. How have women's expanding roles in politics and government coincided with demographic changes?

2. Why is women's participation in political and cultural positions significant for family planning policy?

1. How have improvements in healthcare and basic services contributed to increasing life expectancy in both developed and less-developed countries?

2. How do declining crude birth rates contribute to aging populations across generations?

1. How do political priorities and voting patterns differ between aging and younger populations?

2. What social and economic challenges do families face as people live longer and move away from their home regions?

3. What economic costs and benefits result from an aging population?

1. What is the dependency ratio and how is it calculated?

2. How does the dependency ratio change as a population ages, and what challenges does this create?