Native American History Unit 8 Review: Native American Activism and Civil Rights

Historical Context

• Native American activism and civil rights movements emerged in response to centuries of oppression, discrimination, and broken treaties by the U.S. government
• The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the relocation of numerous Native American tribes from their ancestral lands to designated Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
• The Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society by dividing tribal lands into individual allotments and promoting farming and private land ownership
  • This act resulted in the loss of millions of acres of tribal land and the erosion of traditional Native American cultural practices
• The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 marked a shift in U.S. policy towards Native Americans, promoting tribal self-governance and the preservation of Native American cultures
• The termination era of the 1950s and 1960s saw the U.S. government attempt to end its trust responsibilities to Native American tribes, leading to the loss of federal recognition and resources for many tribes
• The civil rights movement of the 1960s inspired Native American activists to advocate for their rights and challenge the U.S. government's policies towards Native Americans

Key Figures and Leaders

• Vine Deloria Jr., a Standing Rock Sioux author and activist, wrote influential books such as "Custer Died for Your Sins" (1969) and "God Is Red" (1973), which challenged stereotypes and advocated for Native American rights
• Dennis Banks and Clyde Bellecourt, co-founders of the American Indian Movement (AIM), led protests and occupations to draw attention to Native American issues and demand justice
• Russell Means, an Oglala Lakota activist and member of AIM, participated in the occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973 and became a prominent voice for Native American rights
• Wilma Mankiller, the first female Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, worked to improve healthcare, education, and infrastructure for her tribe and became a symbol of Native American leadership
• Ada Deer, a Menominee activist and scholar, played a key role in the restoration of the Menominee tribe's federal recognition in 1973 and served as the Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Indian Affairs from 1993 to 1997
• LaDonna Harris, a Comanche activist, founded Americans for Indian Opportunity (AIO) in 1970 to promote Native American leadership and self-determination

Major Movements and Organizations

• The American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1968, became a leading force in Native American activism, organizing protests, occupations, and legal challenges to assert Native American rights
  • AIM's most famous action was the 71-day occupation of Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota in 1973, which drew international attention to Native American issues
• The National Indian Youth Council (NIYC), established in 1961, focused on promoting Native American education, cultural preservation, and youth empowerment
• The Native American Rights Fund (NARF), founded in 1970, provides legal assistance to Native American tribes, organizations, and individuals to protect their rights and promote their interests
• The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC), formed in 1974, works to defend the rights of Indigenous peoples worldwide and to promote the recognition of treaties between Native American tribes and the U.S. government
• The Indigenous Environmental Network (IEN), founded in 1990, focuses on protecting Native American lands, resources, and communities from environmental threats and promoting sustainable development
• Idle No More, a grassroots movement that began in Canada in 2012, spread to the United States and other countries, advocating for Indigenous rights, environmental protection, and social justice

Legal Battles and Landmark Cases

• United States v. Washington (1974), also known as the Boldt Decision, affirmed the fishing rights of Native American tribes in Washington state under the treaties of the 1850s
  • This decision established the principle of tribal co-management of natural resources and set a precedent for other treaty rights cases
• The Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) of 1978 was enacted to protect Native American children from being removed from their families and tribes by state child welfare agencies
  • ICWA recognized the importance of preserving Native American cultural and familial ties and gave tribes a greater role in child custody proceedings
• The American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) of 1978 affirmed the right of Native Americans to practice their traditional religions and access sacred sites on federal lands
• The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 required federal agencies and institutions that receive federal funding to return Native American cultural items, including human remains, to their respective tribes
• The Cobell v. Salazar class-action lawsuit, filed in 1996, sought to address the mismanagement of Native American trust funds by the U.S. government
  • The case was settled in 2009 for $3.4 billion, providing compensation to individual Native American account holders and establishing a scholarship fund for Native American students

Cultural Revitalization Efforts

• The Native American Languages Act of 1990 recognized the importance of preserving and promoting Native American languages and provided funding for language revitalization programs
• The establishment of tribal colleges and universities, such as Navajo Technical University and Sitting Bull College, has provided Native American students with access to higher education that incorporates traditional knowledge and values
• The development of cultural centers, museums, and heritage sites, such as the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C., has helped to preserve and showcase Native American art, history, and culture
• The revival of traditional practices, such as powwows, ceremonies, and art forms, has strengthened Native American cultural identity and pride
  • For example, the annual Gathering of Nations powwow in Albuquerque, New Mexico, attracts thousands of participants from hundreds of tribes across North America
• The use of digital media, such as social media platforms and online resources, has enabled Native American communities to connect, share knowledge, and promote their cultures to a wider audience
• The incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge into land management practices has helped to restore and protect Native American ancestral lands while promoting sustainable resource use

Media and Public Perception

• Stereotypical and often derogatory portrayals of Native Americans in popular media, such as Hollywood films and television shows, have perpetuated misconceptions and hindered public understanding of Native American cultures and issues
• The use of Native American mascots and imagery by sports teams, such as the Washington Redskins and Cleveland Indians, has been criticized as offensive and disrespectful to Native American communities
  • In recent years, some teams have changed their names and logos in response to public pressure and Native American activism
• Native American journalists, filmmakers, and artists have worked to challenge stereotypes and provide authentic representations of their communities in the media
  • For example, the Native American Journalists Association (NAJA) advocates for fair and accurate coverage of Native American issues in the news media
• Social media campaigns, such as #NativeVote and #IndigenousPeoplesDay, have raised awareness of Native American political participation and challenged the celebration of Columbus Day
• The increased visibility of Native American politicians, such as U.S. Representatives Deb Haaland (Laguna Pueblo) and Sharice Davids (Ho-Chunk Nation), has helped to challenge stereotypes and provide positive role models for Native American youth
• The growing recognition of Native American contributions to art, literature, and scholarship has helped to promote a more nuanced and respectful understanding of Native American cultures and experiences

Ongoing Challenges and Contemporary Issues

• Native American communities continue to face disproportionately high rates of poverty, unemployment, and health disparities compared to the general U.S. population
  • For example, the poverty rate among Native Americans was 25.4% in 2019, compared to 10.5% for the overall U.S. population
• The ongoing struggle for tribal sovereignty and self-determination is complicated by conflicts with federal and state governments over jurisdiction, resource management, and economic development
• The impact of climate change and environmental degradation on Native American lands and resources poses significant challenges to the health, safety, and cultural survival of many tribes
  • For instance, rising sea levels and coastal erosion threaten the ancestral lands and way of life of many Alaska Native communities
• The epidemic of missing and murdered Indigenous women (MMIW) has gained increased attention in recent years, highlighting the need for improved law enforcement and support services in Native American communities
• The ongoing fight against the construction of oil pipelines, such as the Dakota Access Pipeline and the Keystone XL Pipeline, has united Native American activists and allies in defense of tribal sovereignty, environmental protection, and cultural heritage
• The COVID-19 pandemic has had a disproportionate impact on Native American communities, exacerbating existing health and economic disparities and highlighting the need for improved healthcare infrastructure and resources

Legacy and Impact

• The Native American activism and civil rights movements of the 20th century have inspired subsequent generations of Native American leaders and activists to continue the fight for justice, equality, and self-determination
• The increased visibility and influence of Native American voices in politics, media, and academia have helped to challenge stereotypes and promote a more accurate and respectful understanding of Native American cultures and experiences
• The recognition of tribal sovereignty and the development of tribal governments and institutions have enabled Native American communities to exercise greater control over their own affairs and to promote their own interests
• The preservation and revitalization of Native American languages, cultural practices, and traditional knowledge have strengthened Native American identity and resilience in the face of ongoing challenges and pressures
• The establishment of Native American studies programs and research centers at universities across the United States has helped to promote scholarship and understanding of Native American histories, cultures, and contemporary issues
  • For example, the Harvard University Native American Program (HUNAP) supports research, teaching, and outreach related to Native American studies
• The legacy of Native American activism and civil rights movements has inspired solidarity and collaboration with other Indigenous peoples and marginalized communities around the world in the pursuit of social justice and human rights
• The ongoing struggles and achievements of Native American communities serve as a reminder of the resilience, creativity, and determination of Indigenous peoples in the face of centuries of colonization, oppression, and cultural genocide