9.5 African-derived instruments

African origins of Latin American instruments

Many of the percussion instruments central to Latin American music trace directly back to Africa. During the transatlantic slave trade (16th–19th centuries), enslaved Africans brought musical traditions and instrument-building knowledge to the Americas. Over generations, these instruments were adapted and reshaped through contact with indigenous and European musical practices, producing the distinctive sounds that define genres like salsa, samba, cumbia, and rumba.

Understanding these roots matters because African-derived instruments don't just add flavor to Latin American music. They supply the rhythmic foundation that most of these genres are built on.

Membranophones of African origin

Membranophones are instruments that produce sound through the vibration of a stretched membrane, usually animal skin or a synthetic substitute. African-derived membranophones dominate the percussion sections of Afro-Latin ensembles.

Conga drums

• Tall, barrel-shaped drums of Afro-Cuban origin
• Usually played in sets of two or more, with each drum tuned to a different pitch
• Played with the hands and fingers, allowing the player to produce a wide range of tones: open tones, slaps, muted hits, and bass strokes
• Central to salsa, son, and rumba ensembles

Bongos

• Small, paired drums connected by a wooden bridge
• Higher-pitched than congas, making them cut through an ensemble's texture
• Played with the fingers and palms, creating syncopated patterns
• Strongly associated with Afro-Cuban styles like son and salsa

Timbales

• Shallow, metal-shelled drums mounted on a stand
• Typically played in pairs with sticks, producing sharp, piercing tones
• The player also strikes the metal shells (called cascara) for additional rhythmic patterns
• A staple of salsa and other Afro-Cuban genres

Batá drums

• Hourglass-shaped drums of Yoruba origin, used in both sacred and secular Afro-Cuban music
• Played in sets of three, each with a distinct pitch and musical role:
  • Iyá (largest, "mother drum," leads the ensemble)
  • Itótele (medium, responds to the iyá)
  • Okónkolo (smallest, maintains a steady rhythmic pattern)
• Played with the hands, producing complex polyrhythms and call-and-response conversations between the drums

Idiophones from Africa

Idiophones produce sound through the vibration of the instrument's own body, with no strings, membranes, or air columns involved. These instruments tend to be simple in construction but rhythmically essential.

Claves

• Two short, hardwood sticks struck together to produce a high-pitched, penetrating sound
• Provide the rhythmic backbone (the clave pattern) in Afro-Cuban and Latin American genres like salsa, son, and rumba
• The clave pattern organizes the entire ensemble. Every other instrument's part relates to it, which is why musicians say you must "play in clave"

Maracas

• Hollow gourds or shells filled with seeds or beads, shaken to produce a rattling sound
• Used across the Caribbean and South America in genres ranging from cumbia to son

Güiro

• A hollow, notched gourd scraped with a stick to create a rhythmic, rasping sound
• Commonly used in Cuban and Puerto Rican music, especially salsa and merengue
• The player controls rhythm and texture by varying the speed and pressure of the scraping motion

Cowbell

• Metal bell struck with a stick, producing a sharp, cutting percussive tone
• Frequently used in salsa, merengue, and samba to mark time and accent rhythmic patterns

Agogô bells

• Double or triple bells of West African origin, played with a stick
• Each bell is a different size, producing two or three distinct pitches
• Provide high-pitched, interlocking rhythmic patterns in Afro-Brazilian music like samba and maracatu

Cabasa

• A hollow gourd or metal cylinder covered with beads or chains
• Produces a scratching, rattling sound when twisted or shaken against the player's hand
• Used in various Afro-Latin genres, particularly those with West African influence

Aerophones with African roots

Aerophones produce sound through the vibration of air. Fewer African-derived aerophones appear in Latin American music compared to drums and idiophones, but one stands out.

Marimba

• A large, wooden xylophone-like instrument with resonating gourds or tubes beneath the keys
• Originated in Africa and was further developed in Central America, particularly in Guatemala and Mexico, where it became a national instrument
• Played with mallets, producing a warm, mellow tone well-suited to complex, interlocking melodies

African string instruments and Latin American parallels

• The West African kora, a 21-string bridge-harp, shares structural similarities with the Latin American harp
• African lyres like the nyatiti from Kenya resemble some Latin American string instruments in form and playing technique
• These are not direct ancestors of Latin American harps, but they show parallel developments and possible cross-cultural influence

Chordophones of African heritage

Chordophones produce sound through the vibration of strings. Several Latin American string instruments show a blend of European (especially Spanish and Portuguese) construction with African playing techniques and musical sensibilities.

Tres guitar

• A three-course (six-string) guitar of Cuban origin with a bright, distinctive sound
• Evolved from the Spanish guitar but incorporates rhythmic and melodic approaches influenced by African string traditions
• Plays a central role in Cuban son and guajira genres, often carrying both melody and rhythmic drive simultaneously

Cuatro guitar

• A small, four-string guitar popular in Puerto Rico and other Caribbean islands
• Descended from the Spanish guitar, with African influence on its rhythmic playing style
• Provides harmonic and rhythmic accompaniment in jíbaro music and other traditional styles

Cavaquinho

• A small, four-string guitar of Portuguese origin, brought to Brazil during the colonial period
• African string-playing techniques shaped how it's used in Brazilian music
• Essential in samba and choro, where it provides both rhythmic drive and melodic support

Influence on Latin American rhythms

African musical traditions didn't just contribute instruments to Latin American music. They fundamentally shaped how rhythm works in these genres.

African polyrhythms

• Polyrhythm refers to multiple, distinct rhythmic patterns played simultaneously on different instruments
• These interlocking patterns create a dense, layered texture and a strong sense of groove
• Found throughout Afro-Latin genres: the layered percussion of salsa, the batucada sections of samba, and the drum conversations of rumba all rely on polyrhythmic structures

Call and response patterns

• A musical dialogue between a leader and a group, or between different sections of an ensemble
• Rooted in African musical and oral traditions, where communal participation is central
• Prevalent in Afro-Latin religious music (Santería chants, Candomblé songs) and folk styles, and also shows up in secular genres like salsa, where a lead singer trades phrases with a chorus (coro)

Syncopation and improvisation

• Syncopation involves accenting weak beats or off-beats, creating rhythmic tension and forward motion. This is what makes Afro-Latin music feel like it "pulls" you in.
• Improvisation allows musicians to spontaneously create new melodies, rhythms, or variations within a given framework. In salsa, for example, percussionists and singers improvise extensively during the montuno section.
• Both elements are core to African musical aesthetics and have deeply influenced how Latin American music is performed.

Afro-Latin fusion genres

The blending of African and Latin American musical traditions produced numerous distinctive genres. Each one reflects a different regional mix of African, indigenous, and European influences.

Salsa

• Afro-Cuban dance music that emerged in New York City in the 1960s and 70s
• Draws on Cuban son, mambo, and other Caribbean styles, combined with jazz and R&B influences
• African-derived percussion instruments (congas, timbales, cowbell) are front and center in the rhythm section

Rumba

• Afro-Cuban music and dance style originating in the 19th century among Afro-Cuban communities
• Encompasses three main subgenres: yambú (slow, older style), guaguancó (medium tempo, most popular), and columbia (fast, virtuosic, traditionally male solo dance)
• Characterized by complex polyrhythms, call-and-response singing, and expressive dance

Samba

• Afro-Brazilian music and dance style that developed in Rio de Janeiro in the early 20th century
• Combines African rhythmic foundations with European harmonies and Brazilian melodic sensibilities
• Typically features a large percussion section including surdo drums, tamborims, and agogô bells, all driving syncopated rhythms

Cumbia

• Afro-Colombian music and dance style from the Caribbean coastal region
• Blends African drumming, indigenous flutes and instruments, and European melodic elements, with a distinctive shuffling rhythm
• Has spread across Latin America, producing regional variations in Mexico, Peru, Argentina, and elsewhere

Merengue

• Afro-Dominican dance music with a fast, syncopated rhythm
• Features the tambora drum (a two-headed drum played with one hand and one stick), the güira (a metal scraper), and accordion or saxophone
• Became popular throughout the Caribbean and Latin America from the mid-20th century onward

Cultural significance of African instruments

Role in religious ceremonies

• Many African instruments serve sacred functions. The batá drums in Cuba, for example, are used in Santería rituals to communicate with orishas (deities).
• In Brazil, drums and bells are central to Candomblé ceremonies.
• Their use in religious contexts preserves African spiritual practices and maintains connections to ancestral traditions that survived the slave trade.

Use in popular music

• African instruments have been fully incorporated into mainstream Latin American popular music
• They contribute the distinctive rhythms, timbres, and energy of genres like salsa, samba, and cumbia
• Their presence in popular music helps celebrate and promote Afro-Latin cultural identity on a wide scale

Representation of African identity

• The continued prominence of African-derived instruments in Latin American music serves as a powerful symbol of African heritage
• These instruments provide a tangible link to the historical and cultural roots of Afro-Latin communities
• They also function as a form of cultural resistance, asserting the value of African traditions in societies where those traditions were historically suppressed