| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| apparent movement | The visual perception of movement in objects that are not actually moving, such as in phi phenomenon or motion illusions. |
| attention | The selective focus on specific sensory information while filtering out other stimuli, involving both sensation and perception. |
| binocular depth cues | Depth perception cues that require information from both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence. |
| bottom-up processing | Perception driven by external sensory information, where sensory data is processed and built up into perceptions. |
| change blindness | The failure to perceive changes in the environment due to inattention or lack of focus on those changes. |
| closure | A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete by filling in missing information. |
| cocktail party effect | A phenomenon where people can selectively attend to specific information, such as hearing their name, in a noisy or distracting environment. |
| convergence | A binocular depth cue in which the brain merges the retinal images from both eyes to provide perception of depth. |
| figure and ground | A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects as distinct figures that stand out from their background. |
| Gestalt psychology | A psychological approach that explains how humans organize sensory information into meaningful wholes through perceptual principles. |
| interposition | A monocular depth cue in which objects that overlap or block other objects are perceived as closer. |
| linear perspective | A monocular depth cue in which parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, creating the illusion of depth. |
| monocular depth cues | Depth perception cues that can be perceived with one eye, including relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition. |
| perception | The process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted to create a meaningful understanding of the world. |
| perceptual sets | Internal predispositions or expectations that influence how sensory information is perceived and interpreted. |
| proximity | A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects that are close together as a unified group. |
| relative clarity | A monocular depth cue in which objects that appear clearer or sharper are perceived as closer than blurry objects. |
| relative size | A monocular depth cue in which objects that appear larger are perceived as closer than objects that appear smaller. |
| retinal disparity | The difference between the images projected onto each retina, used as a binocular depth cue to perceive depth. |
| schemas | Mental frameworks or organized patterns of knowledge about the world that influence how information is perceived and interpreted. |
| selective attention | The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring other competing stimuli in the environment. |
| similarity | A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects that share similar characteristics as a unified group. |
| texture gradient | A monocular depth cue in which texture becomes finer and less detailed as distance increases, creating the illusion of depth. |
| top-down processing | Perception driven by internal prior expectations and knowledge, where existing schemas influence how sensory information is interpreted. |
| visual perceptual constancies | The tendency to perceive objects as maintaining consistent properties such as size, shape, and color despite changes in the visual image. |
| visual perceptual processes | The cognitive mechanisms by which the visual system interprets sensory information from the eyes to create meaningful perceptions of the environment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| accommodation | The process by which the lens focuses visual stimuli onto the retina to create a clear image. |
| algorithms | Problem-solving strategies that attempt all possible solutions systematically until the correct one is found. |
| assimilation | The cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing the schemas themselves. |
| availability heuristic | A mental shortcut where judgments are based on recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind. |
| cognitive biases | Systematic errors in thinking that affect judgment and decision-making. |
| concepts | Mental categories that organize information and form the basis of thought. |
| confirmation bias | The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information in ways that confirm existing beliefs or attitudes. |
| convergent thinking | A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single correct solution to a problem. |
| creativity | A way of thinking that involves generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent thinking. |
| divergent thinking | A type of creative thinking that generates multiple possible solutions or ideas from a single starting point. |
| executive functions | Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and critical thinking. |
| framing | The way information is presented or contextualized, which can influence decision-making. |
| functional fixedness | A cognitive limitation where individuals perceive objects as having only their traditional function, hindering creative problem-solving. |
| heuristics | Mental shortcuts used to make judgments and solve problems quickly, though they can sometimes lead to errors. |
| mental set | A cognitive bias where prior successful experiences influence how a person approaches new problems. |
| overconfidence effect | A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the accuracy of their beliefs and judgments. |
| priming | The influence of prior exposure to information on subsequent judgments and decisions. |
| prototypes | The ideal or most typical example of a given concept. |
| representativeness heuristic | A mental shortcut that leads to errors in judgment when decisions are made based on prior expectations or stereotypes. |
| schemas | Mental frameworks or organized patterns of knowledge about the world that influence how information is perceived and interpreted. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| automatic processing | Effortless encoding of information into memory that occurs without conscious attention. |
| central executive | A component of the working memory model that controls attention and coordinates information processing. |
| echoic memory | A type of sensory memory that briefly holds auditory information. |
| effortful processing | Conscious, deliberate encoding of information into memory that requires attention and effort. |
| episodic memory | A type of explicit memory for specific events and experiences. |
| explicit memory | A type of memory that can be easily described or explained to others, including episodic and semantic memory. |
| iconic memory | A type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual information. |
| implicit memory | A type of memory that is challenging to describe or explain to others, including procedural memory. |
| levels of processing model | A model proposing that memory is encoded at three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phonemic, and semantic. |
| long-term memory | A memory process that stores information for extended periods, potentially for a lifetime, with relatively unlimited capacity. |
| long-term potentiation | A biological process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, underlying memory formation. |
| multi-store model | A model of memory proposing three interacting systems—sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory—through which information must pass to be remembered. |
| phonemic processing | The intermediate level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the sound of information. |
| phonological loop | A component of the working memory model that processes verbal and acoustic information. |
| procedural memory | A type of implicit memory for procedures, skills, and processes. |
| prospective memory | A type of memory related to remembering to perform future actions. |
| semantic memory | A type of explicit memory for learned knowledge and facts. |
| semantic processing | The deepest level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the meaning of information. |
| sensory memory | The initial memory process that holds sensory information for a very brief duration, typically less than a second. |
| short-term memory | A memory process that temporarily holds a limited amount of information, typically lasting from a few seconds to about a minute. |
| structural processing | The shallowest level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the physical appearance of information. |
| visuospatial sketchpad | A component of the working memory model that processes visual and spatial information. |
| working memory | A memory process that actively manipulates and maintains information for immediate use in cognitive tasks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| chunking | The process of grouping information into meaningful units or chunks to improve encoding and memory capacity. |
| distributed practice | Learning or encoding information spread out over multiple sessions separated by time intervals. |
| encoding | The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. |
| massed practice | Learning or encoding information all at once in a single, concentrated session. |
| memory consolidation | The process by which encoded information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory. |
| method of loci | A mnemonic device in which information is mentally associated with specific physical locations to aid memory encoding and retrieval. |
| mnemonic devices | Techniques or strategies used to aid in encoding and retrieving information from memory. |
| primacy effect | The tendency for information presented at the beginning of a list to be better encoded and remembered. |
| recency effect | The tendency for information presented at the end of a list to be better encoded and remembered. |
| serial position effect | The tendency for items at the beginning and end of a list to be more memorable than items in the middle during encoding. |
| spacing effect | The phenomenon in which information is better encoded and retained when learning is distributed over time rather than concentrated in a single session. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Alzheimer's disease | A progressive neurodegenerative disorder that impairs memory storage and other cognitive functions. |
| amnesia | A memory disorder involving loss of memory function, which can occur in different forms depending on when the loss occurs. |
| anterograde amnesia | A type of amnesia involving difficulty forming new memories for events that occur after the onset of the amnesia. |
| autobiographical memory | Memory for events and experiences from one's own life, which tends to be more memorable when connected to personal identity. |
| elaborative rehearsal | A memory strategy that involves processing information in meaningful ways to promote deeper encoding and better retention. |
| highly superior autobiographical memory | An exceptional ability to recall personal experiences and events in extraordinary detail, suggesting specialized biological memory processes. |
| infantile amnesia | A developmental limitation in which people typically cannot remember events from early childhood, usually before age 3 or 4. |
| long-term memory | A memory process that stores information for extended periods, potentially for a lifetime, with relatively unlimited capacity. |
| maintenance rehearsal | A memory strategy that involves repeating information over time to maintain it in memory without necessarily deepening understanding. |
| retrograde amnesia | A type of amnesia involving loss of memories for events that occurred before the onset of the amnesia. |
| sensory memory | The initial memory process that holds sensory information for a very brief duration, typically less than a second. |
| short-term memory | A memory process that temporarily holds a limited amount of information, typically lasting from a few seconds to about a minute. |
| working memory | A memory process that actively manipulates and maintains information for immediate use in cognitive tasks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| context-dependent memory | The enhanced ability to retrieve information when in the same environmental space as when the information was originally encoded. |
| memory retrieval | The process of accessing and bringing information out of memory storage. |
| metacognition | The awareness and understanding of one's own thinking processes and memory capabilities. |
| mood-congruent memory | The enhanced ability to retrieve information when in the same mood as when the information was originally encoded. |
| recall | A memory retrieval process in which information is remembered without the aid of retrieval cues. |
| recognition | A memory retrieval process that relies on retrieval cues to identify previously learned information. |
| retrieval cues | Stimuli or contextual information that help trigger the recall of stored memories. |
| retrieval practice | The process of repeatedly accessing and retrieving information from memory to enhance successful retrieval. |
| state-dependent memory | The enhanced ability to retrieve information when in the same physical state as when the information was originally encoded. |
| testing effect | The phenomenon in which retrieving information through testing produces better long-term retention than other study methods. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| constructive memory | The process by which memories are reconstructed and influenced by factors such as memory consolidation and imagination inflation rather than being retrieved as exact copies. |
| encoding failure | The failure to process and store information in memory during the initial learning phase. |
| forgetting curve | A graph showing that forgetting occurs rapidly after initial learning and gradually levels off over time. |
| imagination inflation | The tendency for repeated imagination or visualization of an event to increase confidence in false memories of that event. |
| interference | The disruption of memory retrieval when other similar memories compete for recall. |
| memory consolidation | The process by which encoded information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory. |
| misinformation effect | The distortion of memory accuracy when exposure to incorrect information after an event alters the memory of that event. |
| proactive interference | Forgetting that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the ability to remember new information. |
| repression | An ego defense mechanism in which threatening or painful memories and impulses are pushed into the unconscious mind. |
| retroactive interference | Forgetting that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information. |
| source amnesia | A memory error in which a person remembers information but forgets or misremembers the source of that information. |
| tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon | A retrieval failure in which a person feels certain they know information but cannot access it at that moment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| academic achievement | The measurement of what a student has learned or accomplished in an educational setting, often assessed through tests and grades. |
| achievement tests | Standardized assessments designed to measure what someone currently knows or has learned in specific subject areas. |
| aptitude tests | Assessments designed to predict how someone will perform in the future or their potential to learn new skills. |
| bias | Systematic errors or prejudices in how intelligence is defined, measured, or interpreted that can affect the validity of assessments. |
| chronological age | The actual age of a person measured in years from birth. |
| construct validity | The extent to which a test accurately measures the theoretical construct or trait it claims to measure. |
| discrimination | Unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, which can negatively impact intelligence scores and limit opportunities. |
| educational inequities | Unequal access to quality education and educational resources across different groups, which can negatively influence intelligence scores. |
| fixed mindset | The belief that intelligence and abilities are innate and unchangeable from birth. |
| Flynn Effect | The observed increase in IQ scores across populations over time, attributed to societal factors such as improved socioeconomic status, better healthcare, and improved nutrition. |
| general ability | The theory that intelligence is a single, unified cognitive capacity that underlies performance across different types of tasks. |
| growth mindset | The belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed and improved through effort, practice, and experience. |
| intelligence | A general mental ability that can be defined and measured in various ways, though there is ongoing debate about whether it represents a single ability or multiple distinct abilities. |
| intelligence assessments | Standardized tests designed to measure cognitive abilities and intelligence, including IQ tests. |
| intelligence quotient (IQ) | A numerical score derived by dividing mental age by chronological age, used to measure and quantify intelligence. |
| mental age | A measure of cognitive development based on the average age at which individuals achieve a particular level of performance on intelligence tests. |
| multiple abilities | The theory that intelligence is comprised of several distinct cognitive capacities rather than a single general ability. |
| poverty | A state of economic hardship and lack of resources that can negatively influence intelligence scores and educational outcomes. |
| predictive validity | The extent to which a test score can predict future performance or outcomes on a related criterion. |
| psychometric principles | Fundamental standards and methods used in the design and evaluation of psychological tests and assessments. |
| reliability | The consistency and stability of test results, such that a test yields similar results when administered multiple times. |
| sociocultural biases | Prejudices and assumptions based on cultural and social backgrounds that can distort the interpretation of intelligence test scores and their relationship to outcomes. |
| socioeconomic status | A person's or group's position in society based on income, education, and occupation, which can influence access to resources and opportunities affecting intelligence scores. |
| split-half reliability | A measure of reliability determined by dividing a test into two equivalent halves and correlating performance between the halves. |
| standardized test | A test administered using consistent procedures and environments to ensure uniform conditions across all test-takers. |
| systemic issues | Structural problems and inequalities built into institutions and systems that affect groups of people, such as discrimination and educational inequities in intelligence assessment and interpretation. |
| test-retest reliability | A measure of reliability determined by administering the same test to the same individuals at different times and comparing the results. |
| validity | The degree to which a test measures what it is designed to measure. |