9.3 Mahayana schools and philosophical developments
2 min read•july 22, 2024
Mahayana Buddhism introduced new schools of thought, each with unique perspectives on reality and enlightenment. The school emphasizes , focuses on the mind, and teaches in all beings.
These schools shaped key Mahayana concepts like emptiness, the nature of reality, and the . Their influence spread through sutras, universities, and interactions with local traditions, profoundly impacting Buddhist philosophy and practice across Asia.
Mahayana Schools
Main Mahayana schools
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- Madhyamaka school founded by emphasizes the concept of emptiness () and rejects the idea of inherent existence of phenomena
- Yogacara school also known as or "Mind Only" school founded by and focuses on the nature of consciousness and the mind and asserts that all phenomena are mental projections (like dreams or illusions)
- Tathagatagarbha school teaches the concept of Buddha-nature suggesting that all sentient beings have the potential for Buddhahood and emphasizes the inherent purity and luminosity of the mind (like a diamond covered in mud)
Key Mahayana philosophical positions
- Madhyamaka asserts the ultimate emptiness of all phenomena while Yogacara emphasizes the mind as the source of all experiences (like a projector creating a movie)
- Tathagatagarbha suggests an inherent Buddha-nature in all beings while Madhyamaka rejects any notion of inherent existence
- Debates on the nature of reality distinguish between conventional truth (everyday reality) and ultimate truth (the true nature of things) and question the role of language and conceptualization in understanding reality
Concept of emptiness in Mahayana
- Emptiness (sunyata) refers to the lack of inherent existence in all phenomena meaning things do not exist independently but arise due to causes and conditions (like a rainbow appearing due to sunlight and water droplets)
- Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy developed the concept of emptiness through logical arguments refuting the idea of svabhava (inherent nature)
- Understanding emptiness helps overcome attachment and aversion by realizing the interdependent nature of all phenomena (like realizing a mirage is not real water)
- Emptiness is closely related to the concept of which states that all phenomena arise due to causes and conditions and nothing exists independently or permanently
Influence of Mahayana philosophy
- The rise of Mahayana sutras and literature such as the emphasizing the perfection of wisdom and the teaching skillful means () to help beings
- The development of Bodhisattva ideal emphasizing and the liberation of all beings through the practice of the six perfections () like generosity and patience
- The emergence of Buddhist universities and centers of learning such as and in India facilitated the transmission of Mahayana teachings to China, Tibet, and other regions
- Mahayana philosophy interacted with and assimilated local religious and philosophical traditions leading to syncretism with Taoism and Confucianism in China and indigenous beliefs in Tibet (Bon) and Japan (Shinto)
Key Terms to Review (22)
Asanga: Asanga was a prominent Indian Buddhist philosopher and monk who lived around the 4th century CE. He is known for his contributions to Mahayana Buddhism, particularly in developing the Yogācāra school of thought, which emphasizes the nature of consciousness and perception. His work highlights the importance of understanding emptiness and the mind's role in experiencing reality, making his ideas central to both the concept of emptiness and the evolution of Mahayana philosophical developments.
Bodhisattva ideal: The bodhisattva ideal is a central concept in Mahayana Buddhism that refers to a being who aspires to attain Buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. Unlike traditional paths that focus solely on individual enlightenment, this ideal emphasizes the importance of compassion and altruism, encouraging practitioners to work towards the liberation of others while delaying their own final enlightenment.
Buddha-nature: Buddha-nature refers to the inherent potential within all sentient beings to attain enlightenment or Buddhahood. This concept suggests that everyone possesses the fundamental qualities of a buddha, such as wisdom and compassion, but may be obscured by ignorance and delusions. Recognizing and cultivating this innate potential is essential in various practices, particularly meditation, as it emphasizes the transformative journey of realizing one's true nature.
Cittamatra: Cittamatra, often translated as 'mind-only' or 'consciousness-only', is a philosophical concept in Mahayana Buddhism that posits that all phenomena are ultimately manifestations of the mind. This perspective emphasizes that what we perceive in the world is shaped by our mental processes, leading to the understanding that the external world lacks inherent existence and is fundamentally empty.
Compassion: Compassion in Buddhism is the deep awareness of the suffering of others coupled with the wish to alleviate that suffering. It extends beyond mere sympathy and drives ethical conduct, motivating actions such as right speech, right action, and right livelihood to cultivate a harmonious society.
Cultural exchange: Cultural exchange refers to the process through which different cultures share ideas, traditions, art, and beliefs, leading to mutual influence and enrichment. In the context of Mahayana Buddhism, cultural exchange played a critical role in shaping its development as it spread across various regions, integrating local customs and philosophies into its teachings and practices.
Dependent Origination: Dependent origination is a fundamental Buddhist concept that explains how all phenomena arise in dependence on conditions and causes, emphasizing that nothing exists in isolation. This principle illustrates the interconnectedness of all things and the cyclical nature of existence, highlighting how various factors contribute to the creation of life experiences, suffering, and ultimately, enlightenment.
Emptiness: Emptiness, or 'sunyata', refers to the concept that all phenomena are devoid of intrinsic existence or independent essence. This idea is central to understanding the nature of reality in Buddhism, emphasizing the interdependence of all things and how attachment to self and phenomena leads to suffering.
Karuna: Karuna is a fundamental concept in Buddhism that translates to 'compassion' or 'loving-kindness.' It emphasizes the importance of empathy and care for the suffering of all beings, encouraging individuals to act to alleviate that suffering. This sense of compassion is closely connected to various aspects of Buddhist practice, particularly in developing mental discipline, ethical decision-making, and understanding the interconnectedness of all life.
Lotus Sutra: The Lotus Sutra is one of the most important texts in Mahayana Buddhism, emphasizing the idea of universal Buddha-nature and the potential for all beings to attain enlightenment. It highlights the Bodhisattva path, teaching that one should aspire to become a Bodhisattva to help others achieve awakening, thus linking its core message to the values and vows central to Mahayana practice.
Madhyamaka: Madhyamaka is a significant school of Mahayana Buddhism founded by the philosopher Nagarjuna, which emphasizes the concept of emptiness (sunyata) and the middle way between existence and non-existence. It seeks to provide a philosophical framework that avoids the extremes of eternalism and nihilism, asserting that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence and dependent on causes and conditions. This perspective is crucial for understanding the nature of reality and is deeply connected to various developments in Mahayana thought.
Metta: Metta is a Pali word that translates to 'loving-kindness' or 'unconditional love.' It is a fundamental concept in Buddhism that encourages the cultivation of love and compassion towards all beings, including oneself. This practice fosters positive mental states and emotional well-being, playing a vital role in the journey towards enlightenment and the cessation of suffering.
Nagarjuna: Nagarjuna was a pivotal Indian philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, known for his profound contributions to Buddhist philosophy, particularly in the development of the concept of emptiness. His works critically examined traditional views on reality, asserting that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence, which has significant implications for understanding karma, rebirth, and dependent origination.
Nalanda: Nalanda was an ancient center of learning in India, founded in the 5th century CE and renowned for its role in the development of Buddhist philosophy and education. It attracted students and scholars from various parts of Asia, becoming a crucial hub for the Mahayana schools and philosophical advancements, as well as contributing significantly to the rise and spread of Buddhism in India.
Paramitas: Paramitas, often translated as 'perfections,' are essential virtues that a Bodhisattva cultivates to attain enlightenment and help others reach it as well. These ten qualities guide the Bodhisattva path, emphasizing selflessness, compassion, and wisdom. The practice of paramitas is central to Mahayana Buddhism, deeply influencing its schools and philosophies and shaping the teachings found in its major sutras.
Prajnaparamita sutras: The prajnaparamita sutras are a collection of Mahayana Buddhist texts that emphasize the concept of 'perfection of wisdom.' These texts explore the nature of reality, emptiness, and the importance of developing wisdom to attain enlightenment. They form a foundational aspect of Mahayana philosophy and serve as essential teachings for various schools within this tradition.
Sunyata: Sunyata, often translated as 'emptiness,' refers to the central concept in Buddhist philosophy that suggests all phenomena are devoid of intrinsic existence or independent nature. This idea challenges the notion of fixed identities and emphasizes that everything is interdependent, which is a core teaching in various Buddhist traditions. Understanding sunyata helps practitioners realize the transient and interconnected nature of all things, paving the way for deeper insights into the nature of reality and the alleviation of suffering.
Tathagatagarbha: Tathagatagarbha, often translated as 'Buddha-nature', refers to the inherent potential for enlightenment present within all sentient beings. This concept suggests that every individual possesses the seed or essence of Buddhahood, which can be realized through proper spiritual practice. Tathagatagarbha is a central idea in Mahayana Buddhism and is foundational to various schools within this tradition, influencing teachings on compassion, the nature of reality, and the path to awakening.
Upaya: Upaya, often translated as 'skillful means,' refers to the methods or strategies that are used to help individuals achieve enlightenment in Buddhism. This concept emphasizes the idea that different teachings and practices can be adapted to fit the needs and capacities of different people, highlighting the flexibility and compassion inherent in Buddhist practice. Upaya is particularly important in understanding how teachings can be communicated effectively to various audiences, ensuring that the essence of the Dharma reaches those who may need it most.
Vasubandhu: Vasubandhu was a prominent Indian Buddhist philosopher and scholar who lived in the 4th to 5th centuries CE. He is best known for his contributions to the development of Buddhist philosophy, particularly in the context of the Abhidharma and Yogacara schools, and for his influential ideas on the concept of emptiness and the nature of reality.
Vikramashila: Vikramashila was one of the most significant monastic universities in ancient India, founded in the 8th century by the Indian Buddhist master Atisha. It became a center for the study and dissemination of Mahayana Buddhism and was known for its rigorous academic environment, attracting students from various regions, including Tibet and Central Asia. The university played a key role in the development of Buddhist philosophy and practice, particularly in the context of Mahayana schools.
Yogacara: Yogacara is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that emphasizes the role of consciousness in the understanding of reality. This philosophical approach asserts that all phenomena are products of the mind and that true knowledge comes from direct experience and meditation. It connects deeply with concepts like emptiness, which suggests that things do not possess inherent existence, and offers insights into the nature of perception and reality in Buddhist thought.