Nero's reign marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He came to power as a teenager guided by capable advisors, but over time he grew increasingly tyrannical. His persecution of Christians, lavish building projects, and erratic behavior drove Rome toward crisis. When he died by suicide in 68 CE, no clear successor existed, and the empire spiraled into a civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. By the end of 69 CE, Vespasian emerged as the last man standing and founded the Flavian dynasty.
Nero's Reign
Early Reign and Advisors
Nero became emperor at just 16 years old in 54 CE, after the death of his adoptive father Claudius. Because he was so young, three key figures shaped his early rule:
- Agrippina the Younger, his mother, who had engineered his adoption by Claudius and maneuvered him onto the throne
- Seneca the Younger, a Stoic philosopher who served as his tutor and helped craft his policies and speeches
- Burrus, the Praetorian Prefect, who managed military loyalty and day-to-day governance
The first five years of Nero's reign (sometimes called the quinquennium Neronis) were generally regarded as competent, largely because Seneca and Burrus kept things on track. But Nero gradually pushed back against their influence. Agrippina's power faded first; Nero had her murdered in 59 CE. Burrus died in 62 CE, and Seneca, losing his political footing, retired that same year. With his advisors gone, Nero ruled increasingly on his own terms.
Great Fire of Rome and Persecution of Christians
In 64 CE, a massive fire tore through Rome, burning for about six days and destroying large portions of the city. Rumors quickly spread that Nero himself had started the fire to clear land for a grand new palace. Whether or not that's true (and most historians are skeptical), Nero needed someone to blame.
He targeted the Christians, a small and already unpopular religious community in Rome. This became the first official Roman persecution of Christians. Those arrested faced brutal punishments: crucifixion, being burned alive, and being thrown to dogs.
Nero then used the cleared land to build the Domus Aurea (Golden House), an enormous palace complex that included gardens, an artificial lake, and a colossal bronze statue of himself known as the Colossus of Nero. The sheer extravagance of the project fueled resentment among Romans who had lost their homes in the fire.
Poppaea Sabina and Later Reign
Nero married Poppaea Sabina in 62 CE after divorcing his first wife, Octavia. Poppaea was a significant influence on Nero and is often described in ancient sources as encouraging his more extravagant and authoritarian tendencies.
By the mid-60s, opposition to Nero was growing. In 65 CE, the Pisonian conspiracy, a plot to assassinate Nero and replace him with the senator Gaius Calpurnius Piso, was uncovered. Nero crushed it brutally. Many prominent Romans were implicated and forced to commit suicide, including:
- Seneca, Nero's former tutor and advisor
- Lucan, the poet
- Petronius, author of the Satyricon
After the conspiracy, Nero's reign became even more erratic. He executed rivals, confiscated property, and spent lavishly while the treasury drained. By 68 CE, provincial governors began revolting. When the Praetorian Guard defected and the Senate declared him a public enemy, Nero had no support left. He committed suicide, reportedly saying, "What an artist dies in me." His death ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty that had ruled Rome since Augustus.
Year of the Four Emperors
Nero left no heir and no plan for succession. The result was 69 CE, a year of civil war in which four men claimed the throne in rapid succession. This crisis exposed a dangerous truth about Roman power: as the historian Tacitus put it, emperors could be made somewhere other than Rome.
Galba and Otho
Galba, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, was the first to seize power. His troops proclaimed him emperor in 68 CE, and the Senate recognized him after Nero's death. But Galba quickly made enemies. He was strict, refused to pay the bonuses (donatives) the Praetorian Guard expected, and alienated potential allies.
In January 69 CE, Otho, a former governor of Lusitania who had expected to be named Galba's heir, bribed the Praetorian Guard to assassinate Galba. Otho was declared emperor, but his hold on power was immediately challenged. The legions stationed along the Rhine in Germania had already proclaimed their own commander, Vitellius, as emperor.
Vitellius and Vespasian
Vitellius, governor of Germania Inferior, marched his forces toward Rome. His army defeated Otho's troops at the First Battle of Bedriacum in northern Italy in April 69 CE. Otho, rather than continue fighting, committed suicide. Vitellius entered Rome as emperor, but his reign was marked by excess and weak leadership.
Meanwhile, the eastern legions had their own candidate. In July 69 CE, the troops in Egypt and Judea proclaimed Vespasian, the general commanding the Roman campaign against the Jewish revolt, as emperor. Vespasian's forces, led by his lieutenant Marcus Antonius Primus, marched west and defeated Vitellius' army at the Second Battle of Bedriacum in October 69 CE.
Vitellius was captured and killed in Rome in December 69 CE. Vespasian, now the sole emperor, founded the Flavian dynasty. His accession brought stability back to the empire after a year that had seen four emperors, two major battles, and the near-collapse of Roman political order.