Intro to American Government Unit 11 Review: Congress

What's Congress and Why Should I Care?

• Congress is the legislative branch of the U.S. federal government responsible for creating laws
• Consists of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives
• Established by Article I of the U.S. Constitution granting legislative powers
• Plays a crucial role in the system of checks and balances alongside the executive (President) and judicial (Supreme Court) branches
• Impacts daily life through legislation on various issues (healthcare, taxes, education)
• Represents the interests of constituents from each state and district
• Holds the "power of the purse" controlling government spending and budget allocation
• Declares war and regulates the armed forces

The Two-House Setup: Senate vs. House of Reps

• Bicameral legislature: two separate chambers with distinct roles and powers
• Senate: 100 members, 2 senators per state regardless of population
  • 6-year terms, elections staggered every 2 years (1/3 of senators)
  • Advise and consent on presidential appointments and treaties
  • Conducts trials for federal officials impeached by the House
• House of Representatives: 435 members, proportional to state population
  • 2-year terms, all seats up for election every 2 years
  • Initiates revenue bills and impeachment proceedings
  • More responsive to public opinion due to shorter terms
• Legislation must pass both chambers in identical form before being sent to the President

How a Bill Becomes a Law (It's Not Just Schoolhouse Rock)

• Introduction: Bill is proposed in either the House or Senate and assigned a number (H.R. or S.)
• Committee referral: Bill is sent to relevant committee(s) for review, hearings, and amendments
• Committee action: Bill can be approved, amended, or tabled (effectively killed) in committee
• Floor action: If reported out of committee, bill is debated and voted on in the chamber
  • House: Rules Committee sets parameters for debate and amendments
  • Senate: Filibuster allows unlimited debate unless cloture is invoked (60 votes)
• Conference committee: If versions differ, representatives from both chambers negotiate a compromise
• Final passage: Identical bill must be approved by both House and Senate
• Presidential action: President can sign the bill into law or veto it (can be overridden by 2/3 vote in each chamber)

Key Players: Leadership and Committees

• Speaker of the House: Presiding officer, sets agenda, and appoints committee chairs (majority party)
• House Majority/Minority Leaders: Manage party's legislative priorities and floor operations
• Senate Majority/Minority Leaders: Similar roles to House counterparts, but with less formal power
• Committee Chairs: Control agenda, hearings, and bill markups within their jurisdiction
  • Seniority system: Longest-serving majority party member typically becomes chair
• Whips: Assist party leaders in counting votes and ensuring party discipline
• Standing Committees: Permanent panels with specific policy areas (Appropriations, Judiciary)
• Select/Special Committees: Temporary committees for specific issues or investigations (Intelligence)

Congress's Main Jobs: Lawmaking, Oversight, and Representation

• Lawmaking: Drafting, debating, and passing legislation on various policy issues
  • Authorizing legislation: Establishes or modifies government programs and policies
  • Appropriations bills: Allocates funding for authorized programs and agencies
• Oversight: Monitoring the executive branch and ensuring laws are faithfully executed
  • Hearings: Questioning administration officials and experts on policy implementation
  • Investigations: Probing alleged misconduct or failures in government agencies
• Representation: Acting on behalf of constituents and addressing their concerns
  • Casework: Assisting individuals with federal agency issues (veterans benefits, Social Security)
  • Pork barrel spending: Securing funding for local projects to benefit constituents
• Advise and Consent: Senate's role in confirming presidential appointments and ratifying treaties

How Elections Shape Congress

• Congressional elections held every 2 years, coinciding with presidential elections in even-numbered years
• Incumbency advantage: Sitting members more likely to be re-elected due to name recognition and fundraising
  • Gerrymandering: Redrawing district boundaries to favor a particular party or incumbent
• Midterm elections: Held in non-presidential years, often seen as a referendum on the President's party
  • President's party typically loses seats in midterms due to "surge and decline" theory
• Coattail effect: Presidential candidate's popularity can influence down-ballot races
• Money in politics: Campaign finance laws regulate contributions and spending
  • PACs (Political Action Committees) and Super PACs can raise and spend unlimited funds independently of campaigns
• Wave elections: Significant shift in party control due to strong political trends or issues (1994 Republican Revolution)

Gridlock and Partisanship: Why Can't They Just Get Along?

• Divided government: Different parties control the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress
  • Can lead to gridlock, as parties have conflicting priorities and incentives
• Polarization: Widening ideological gap between the two parties, with fewer moderate members
  • Increased party-line voting and decreased bipartisan cooperation
• Filibuster: Senate rule allowing unlimited debate, often used by the minority party to block legislation
  • Cloture: Procedure to end a filibuster, requiring 60 votes (supermajority)
• Media and public opinion: 24-hour news cycle and social media amplify partisan conflicts and rhetoric
• Gerrymandering and "safe seats": Redistricting can create districts with strong partisan leans, reducing incentives for compromise
• Primaries and party activists: Candidates often appeal to base voters in primaries, moving away from the center

Congress's Evolving Role in Modern America

• Shift from legislative to oversight focus: Increased emphasis on investigating executive branch actions
  • Watergate investigations in the 1970s set a precedent for congressional oversight
• Delegation of authority: Congress often grants broad powers to executive agencies to interpret and enforce laws
  • Chevron deference: Courts defer to agency interpretations of ambiguous statutes
• Polarization and gridlock: Increased difficulty in passing major legislation due to partisan divides
  • Rise of omnibus bills and continuing resolutions to fund the government
• War powers: Debates over Congress's role in authorizing and overseeing military action
  • War Powers Resolution of 1973 seeks to limit presidential power to engage in armed conflicts
• Lobbying and special interests: Influence of organized groups on congressional decision-making
  • Revolving door: Movement of individuals between government and industry positions
• Technology and constituent communication: Social media and email have changed how members interact with the public