general biology i unit 41 study guides

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Osmosis movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential
• Osmolarity measure of the total solute concentration in a solution expressed as the number of osmoles of solute per liter of solution (Osm/L)
• Osmoregulation process by which an organism maintains its body fluids at a constant osmolarity despite changes in the surrounding environment
  • Involves regulating the balance of water and solutes in the body
  • Essential for maintaining proper cell function and homeostasis
• Excretion process of removing metabolic waste products and excess substances from the body
• Nephron functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtering blood, reabsorbing essential molecules, and excreting waste products
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) peptide hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland that regulates water reabsorption in the kidneys
• Aldosterone steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that regulates sodium and potassium balance in the body

Osmosis and Water Balance

• Osmosis plays a crucial role in maintaining water balance within cells and tissues
• Water moves from areas of high water potential (low solute concentration) to areas of low water potential (high solute concentration) across a semipermeable membrane
• The movement of water occurs passively and does not require energy input
• Osmotic pressure force exerted by the difference in solute concentrations across a semipermeable membrane
  • Determines the direction and magnitude of water movement
• Cells maintain their water balance by regulating the concentration of solutes in their cytoplasm
  • If the extracellular fluid is hypotonic (lower solute concentration), water will move into the cell, causing it to swell
  • If the extracellular fluid is hypertonic (higher solute concentration), water will move out of the cell, causing it to shrink
• Organisms employ various strategies to maintain water balance, such as:
  • Regulating the permeability of their body surfaces (skin, gills, etc.)
  • Actively transporting solutes to create osmotic gradients
  • Producing and excreting concentrated or dilute waste products

Osmoregulation in Different Environments

• Osmoregulation strategies vary depending on the environment an organism inhabits
• Freshwater organisms face the challenge of constant water influx due to the hypotonic environment
  • They maintain water balance by actively excreting excess water and conserving solutes
  • Examples include freshwater fish, which produce large volumes of dilute urine and absorb salts through their gills
• Marine organisms live in a hypertonic environment, where they tend to lose water to their surroundings
  • They maintain water balance by conserving water and actively excreting excess salts
  • Examples include marine fish, which drink seawater and excrete concentrated salt through their gills and kidneys
• Terrestrial organisms face varying degrees of water availability and must regulate their water balance accordingly
  • They minimize water loss through adaptations such as waterproof body coverings (waxy cuticles in plants, skin in animals) and efficient excretory systems
  • Examples include desert plants, which have deep roots and specialized leaves to minimize water loss, and mammals, which produce concentrated urine to conserve water

Excretory Systems Across Species

• Excretory systems remove metabolic waste products and maintain osmotic balance in organisms
• The complexity and structure of excretory systems vary among different species
• Unicellular organisms (protozoa) remove waste products through simple diffusion or specialized contractile vacuoles
• Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) have a primitive excretory system called protonephridia, which consists of flame cells that filter body fluids and collect waste in a network of tubules
• Annelids (segmented worms) have metanephridia, which are more advanced excretory organs that filter body fluids and remove waste products
• Arthropods (insects, crustaceans) have Malpighian tubules, which are thin, thread-like structures that absorb waste products from the hemolymph and excrete them into the digestive tract
• Vertebrates have well-developed excretory systems centered around the kidneys, which filter blood, regulate water and solute balance, and produce urine

The Human Urinary System

• The human urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
• Kidneys bean-shaped organs located in the lower back that filter blood, regulate water and solute balance, and produce urine
  • Each kidney contains approximately 1 million nephrons, the functional units of the kidney
• Ureters muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
• Urinary bladder hollow, muscular organ that stores urine until it is ready to be excreted
• Urethra tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body during urination
• The urinary system works in coordination with other body systems (circulatory, endocrine) to maintain homeostasis and remove waste products

Kidney Structure and Function

• Kidneys are divided into two main regions: the outer cortex and the inner medulla
• Nephrons, the functional units of the kidney, span both the cortex and medulla
  • Each nephron consists of a renal corpuscle (glomerulus and Bowman's capsule) and a renal tubule (proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct)
• The renal corpuscle filters blood, creating an ultrafiltrate that enters the renal tubule
• The renal tubule modifies the ultrafiltrate by reabsorbing essential molecules (water, glucose, amino acids, ions) and secreting additional waste products
• The loop of Henle creates a concentration gradient in the medulla, which allows for the production of concentrated urine
• The collecting duct system collects urine from multiple nephrons and responds to hormonal signals to regulate final urine concentration
• Kidneys perform several essential functions:
  • Filtering blood and removing waste products (urea, creatinine, excess ions)
  • Regulating water and electrolyte balance
  • Maintaining acid-base balance
  • Producing hormones (erythropoietin, renin, calcitriol)

Urine Formation Process

• Urine formation occurs in three main stages: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion
• Glomerular filtration occurs in the renal corpuscle, where blood is filtered under pressure, creating an ultrafiltrate containing water, small solutes, and waste products
  • The filtration barrier consists of the fenestrated endothelium of the glomerular capillaries, the basement membrane, and the filtration slits between podocytes
  • Large molecules (proteins, blood cells) and negatively charged molecules are retained in the blood
• Tubular reabsorption occurs along the renal tubule, where essential molecules are selectively transported back into the bloodstream
  • The proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs the majority of the ultrafiltrate (water, glucose, amino acids, and ions)
  • The loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule fine-tune the reabsorption process and respond to hormonal signals
• Tubular secretion involves the active transport of additional waste products (hydrogen ions, potassium, certain drugs) from the peritubular capillaries into the tubular lumen
• The final urine composition is determined by the combined actions of glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion

Hormonal Regulation of Osmoregulation

• Hormones play a crucial role in regulating water and electrolyte balance in the body
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin, is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland in response to increased blood osmolarity or decreased blood volume
  • ADH increases water reabsorption in the collecting ducts of the nephron, leading to the production of concentrated urine
  • In the absence of ADH, the collecting ducts are less permeable to water, resulting in the production of dilute urine
• Aldosterone, a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex, regulates sodium and potassium balance in the body
  • Aldosterone stimulates the reabsorption of sodium and the secretion of potassium in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
  • Increased sodium reabsorption leads to increased water reabsorption, helping to maintain blood volume and pressure
• Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), secreted by the atria of the heart in response to increased blood volume, promotes sodium excretion and reduces water reabsorption in the kidneys
• The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a hormonal cascade that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance
  • Renin, an enzyme produced by the juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys, converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
  • Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor that stimulates aldosterone secretion
• The coordinated actions of these hormones maintain osmotic balance and ensure proper fluid regulation in the body