8.5 Jewelry making

Materials for Viking jewelry

Viking jewelry production reveals a great deal about the society that created it. The materials craftspeople chose tell us about trade connections, social hierarchies, and cultural beliefs across the Viking world.

Precious metals in Viking era

Gold and silver were the primary precious metals for high-status pieces. Silver became especially prevalent during the Viking Age thanks to a massive influx of Islamic silver dirhams flowing into Scandinavia through eastern trade routes. Copper and copper alloys (bronze, brass) served for more common, everyday jewelry.

• Precious metals were obtained through trade, raiding, tribute, or payment for mercenary services
• Silver's growing availability made it the dominant precious metal by the 10th century, gradually displacing gold in many contexts

Gemstones and glass beads

Garnets imported from as far as India and Sri Lanka were prized for their deep red color and appear in some of the finest Viking metalwork. Rock crystal, amber, and jet served both decorative and perceived magical functions.

• Glass beads were produced locally at major craft centers and also imported from sites like Ribe and Hedeby
• Millefiori beads from the Mediterranean world were highly valued for their intricate mosaic-like patterns and show up frequently in Scandinavian grave finds

Organic materials in adornments

Not all Viking jewelry was metal. Bone and antler were carved into pendants, beads, and decorative elements. Walrus ivory, prized for its density and workability, appeared in high-status pieces.

• Wood was occasionally used for larger items or as inlay material
• Animal teeth and claws were incorporated into necklaces and amulets, likely for symbolic or protective purposes tied to the qualities of the animal

Techniques of Viking jewelers

The techniques Viking metalworkers used demonstrate remarkable skill, and understanding them helps archaeologists date finds and determine where pieces were made.

Metalworking methods

Forging shaped metal through repeated cycles of hammering and annealing (heating to soften). Wire drawing pulled metal through progressively smaller holes to produce thin strands for intricate designs. Soldering joined separate pieces using alloys with lower melting points.

Two related techniques created raised surface designs:

1. Repoussé: The metalworker hammered from the back of a sheet to push up raised areas
2. Chasing: Working from the front with small punches to refine details and add texture

Filigree and granulation

Filigree involves soldering tiny twisted or plain metal wires onto a surface to build up intricate patterns. Granulation attaches minuscule metal spheres to create textured surfaces. These two techniques were often combined on a single piece.

Both reached their peak complexity in 10th-century Scandinavia, heavily influenced by contact with Byzantine and Islamic metalworking traditions. Identifying these techniques on a find can help pin down its date and cultural connections.

Casting and molding processes

Casting was essential for producing both elaborate one-off pieces and standardized items.

• Lost-wax casting (for complex three-dimensional forms):
  1. A wax model of the desired object is sculpted
  2. The model is encased in a clay mold
  3. The mold is heated, melting out the wax
  4. Molten metal is poured into the cavity left behind
  5. The clay mold is broken away to reveal the finished piece
• Two-piece molds were used for simpler, flatter designs
• Carved soapstone molds allowed multiple copies of common items, such as Thor's hammer pendants, to be produced efficiently

Styles and designs

Viking jewelry styles blended native Scandinavian traditions with foreign influences absorbed through trade and raiding. Designs frequently carried symbolic meaning tied to Norse mythology, and stylistic shifts over time give archaeologists a reliable tool for dating finds.

Norse animal motifs

Animal ornamentation is the hallmark of Viking art, and several named styles mark its evolution:

• Gripping beast motifs show creatures clutching at their own bodies or the frame around them, creating dense, interlocking compositions
• Jellinge style (named after the royal site at Jelling) features ribbon-shaped animal bodies with distinctive spiral hips
• Borre style is characterized by ring-chain patterns and symmetrical gripping beasts
• Urnes style, the last major Viking art style, developed in the late 11th century with graceful, elongated animals in flowing, asymmetrical compositions

Geometric patterns

Interlace designs created complex knotwork patterns that could fill any shape. Triangular and diamond shapes appeared in repeating border designs, while spiral motifs featured in both metalwork and stone carving. Geometric and animal motifs were frequently combined on the same piece.

Christian vs. pagan symbolism

Jewelry provides direct evidence of the religious transition during the late Viking Age.

• Thor's hammer (Mjölnir) pendants are the most recognizable symbol of traditional Norse belief
• Cross pendants indicate Christian conversion or at least cultural contact with Christian communities
• Valkyrie figurines connect to Norse mythology and warrior culture

Some late Viking Age pieces deliberately incorporated both cross and hammer symbols, reflecting a period when the two belief systems coexisted. A famous soapstone mold from Trendgården in Denmark could cast both crosses and hammers, suggesting a craftsperson catering to customers of either faith.

Types of Viking jewelry

Viking jewelry types varied by function, social status, gender, and region. Many forms served practical purposes beyond decoration.

Brooches and fibulas

• Oval brooches (often called "turtle brooches" for their domed shape) were worn in pairs by women to fasten the straps of apron dresses. They are among the most common finds in female Viking graves.
• Trefoil brooches, inspired by Carolingian designs, were popular in the 9th and 10th centuries
• Penannular brooches (ring-shaped with an opening) fastened cloaks and were often decorated with animal-head terminals
• Equal-armed brooches appear more commonly in eastern Viking territories

Arm rings and neck rings

Arm rings functioned as both personal adornment and portable wealth. Twisted silver arm rings served as currency in the Viking weight-based economy, where metal was valued by weight rather than by form.

• Neck rings (torcs) were worn by both men and women as prominent status symbols
• Some neck rings and arm rings were designed to be cut apart or "hacked" into smaller pieces for use as payment

Pendants and amulets

• Thor's hammer pendants are the single most common amulet type from the Viking Age
• Animal-shaped pendants (birds, horses) likely connected to specific Norse mythological figures
• Coin pendants were made from foreign silver coins fitted with added loops for suspension
• Miniature tools and weapons worn as pendants may have served as protective amulets

Social significance of jewelry

Jewelry in Viking society carried meaning well beyond decoration. It signaled rank, marked gender roles, and played active roles in ritual life.

Status and wealth indicators

Gold jewelry was reserved for the highest social ranks. The weight and quality of a person's silver jewelry directly reflected their economic standing, while the complexity of designs and use of imported materials signaled both wealth and far-reaching connections.

Arm rings and neck rings were sometimes given by lords to followers as rewards for loyalty or military service, making them tangible symbols of political relationships.

Gender-specific adornments

The archaeological record shows clear gendered patterns in jewelry use:

• Women typically wore paired oval brooches, often connected by strings of glass and amber beads
• Men more commonly wore arm rings, neck rings, and cloak pins
• Some types, like pendants and finger rings, were worn by both genders
• Thor's hammer pendants appear more frequently in male-associated burials, though they are not exclusive to them

Ritual and religious functions

• Jewelry was regularly included in grave goods, presumably to accompany the deceased into the afterlife
• Certain amulets were thought to provide protection or invoke divine assistance
• Arm rings played a role in oath-taking ceremonies, linking personal honor to a material object
• The deposition of jewelry in hoards may have carried ritual significance beyond simple economic storage, possibly as offerings to gods or spirits

Regional variations

Viking jewelry styles differed across the wide territories of Norse influence. These regional differences reflect local traditions, available materials, and the specific cultures Vikings encountered.

Scandinavian vs. insular styles

Scandinavian styles are characterized by animal motifs and complex interlace. In the British Isles, Norse settlers incorporated Celtic artistic traditions, producing distinctive fusion styles.

• Penannular brooches were particularly popular in Norse-Irish contexts
• Long-term settlement areas like the Isle of Man and Orkney developed their own hybrid styles
• Gotlandic jewelry (from the island of Gotland in the Baltic) stands out with unique brooch forms and exceptionally fine filigree work

Eastern influences on designs

In the eastern Viking territories stretching through modern Russia and Ukraine, jewelry shows clear Byzantine and Islamic influences:

• Crescent-shaped (lunula) pendants reflect contact with Islamic cultures
• Granulation techniques appear more frequently in eastern finds
• Plant motifs and certain geometric designs were adopted from Byzantine art
• These eastern pieces demonstrate how Viking material culture adapted to local contexts along trade routes

Archaeological evidence

Jewelry finds are among the most informative artifact categories for understanding the Viking Age. How and where pieces are found matters as much as the objects themselves.

Burial finds vs. hoards

These two main find contexts tell different stories:

Workshop sites and tools

Excavated workshop sites at urban centers like Hedeby and Birka reveal how production was organized. Finds include crucibles, molds, tongs, and other metalworking tools.

Unfinished pieces and production waste (metal scraps, failed castings, mold fragments) are especially valuable because they document the manufacturing process step by step. The distribution of workshops across Scandinavia indicates which settlements served as major centers of jewelry production.

Preservation and analysis methods

Modern analytical techniques allow archaeologists to study Viking jewelry without damaging it:

• X-ray fluorescence (XRF) determines metal composition non-destructively
• Microscopic analysis reveals tool marks, wear patterns, and manufacturing details
• 3D scanning and printing enables detailed study and replication of complex pieces
• Proper conservation is critical for preserving delicate filigree and granulation work, which can deteriorate rapidly if not stabilized after excavation

Evolution of Viking jewelry

Viking jewelry styles and techniques changed significantly across roughly three centuries. Tracking this evolution helps archaeologists build chronologies and understand broader cultural shifts.

Pre-Viking influences

Viking art did not emerge from nothing. Several earlier traditions fed into it:

• Migration Period (c. 400–800 CE) animal styles provided the foundation for Viking-era designs
• The Vendel Period (c. 550–790 CE) saw the development of complex animal interlace that directly preceded Viking art
• Late Roman and Byzantine metalwork influenced some early Viking forms
• Celtic artistic traditions were incorporated especially in areas where Norse and Celtic populations mixed

Changes during the Viking Age

• Early period (late 8th–9th centuries): Distinctly Viking styles emerged, including the Borre and Jellinge styles
• Mid-Viking period (10th century): Technical complexity peaked, particularly in filigree and granulation work
• Late Viking period (11th century): Christian motifs increasingly appeared alongside and then replaced pagan imagery
• Mass-produced types like oval brooches became progressively standardized, with regional variation decreasing over time

Legacy in medieval jewelry

Viking artistic traditions did not vanish with the end of the Viking Age. Animal styles influenced Romanesque art in Scandinavia and beyond. Certain forms like penannular brooches continued into the medieval period. Viking filigree and granulation techniques were adopted by medieval European goldsmiths, and Norse-Gaelic jewelry styles persisted in Ireland and Scotland for generations.

Trade and exchange

Viking jewelry production depended on long-distance trade networks. Studying where materials came from and where finished pieces ended up maps the economic geography of the Viking world.

Sources of raw materials

• Silver came primarily through trade with the Islamic world via eastern river routes through modern Russia
• Gold was sourced from Byzantine territories and recycled from Roman-era objects
• Amber, collected along the Baltic coast, was traded widely across Europe and into the Middle East
• Jet from limited sources (notably Whitby in England) indicates specific, traceable trade connections

Jewelry as currency

In the Viking weight-based economy, the value of silver lay in its weight, not its form. This meant jewelry doubled as money:

• Arm rings and neck rings could be cut into "hack-silver" for transactions
• Standardized forms of silver jewelry may have functioned as a kind of proto-currency
• Foreign coins were frequently melted down or mounted as jewelry, combining economic and decorative value

International trade networks

Viking trade routes connected Scandinavia with Eastern Europe, the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic Caliphates, and Western Europe. Silk Road connections brought exotic materials like carnelian and rock crystal to Scandinavian markets. Norse colonies in the British Isles facilitated exchange with Western Europe and Ireland, while Baltic networks distributed amber and regional jewelry styles across Northern Europe.

Modern interpretations

Viking jewelry continues to attract scholarly and popular interest, though modern representations vary widely in accuracy.

Replicas and reproductions

Museum-quality replicas serve educational purposes and support experimental archaeology, helping researchers test hypotheses about how pieces were actually made. Historical reenactment communities drive a market for accurate reproductions, and some modern jewelers create pieces using traditional techniques. 3D printing has also enabled the reproduction of complex forms that would be difficult to replicate by hand.

Viking jewelry in popular culture

Television series like Vikings and The Last Kingdom have brought Viking-era jewelry to wide audiences, though their depictions range from reasonably accurate to highly stylized. Fantasy genres, video games, and commercial "Viking-inspired" jewelry draw on these designs with varying degrees of historical fidelity. For students of archaeology, it's worth developing an eye for distinguishing historically grounded representations from purely imaginative ones.