The Cold War, a decades-long geopolitical struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union, came to an end with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. A combination of internal economic stagnation, costly foreign interventions, technological disparity, and increasing popular resistance contributed to the downfall of communist regimes across Eastern Europe and the end of the bipolar world order.
The Cold War Begins to Thaw
By the 1980s, the strain of Cold War competition—militarily, politically, and economically—was becoming unsustainable for the Soviet Union. The United States, under Ronald Reagan, sharply increased defense spending and took a more aggressive anti-communist stance, including initiatives like the Strategic Defense Initiative (also known as “Star Wars”).
U.S. Military and Technological Superiority
The United States held a decisive advantage in technological innovation and military capability by the late Cold War period:
- Massive investments in nuclear weapons, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and satellite surveillance allowed the U.S. to deter Soviet expansion.
- American advances in space technology—exemplified by the Apollo missions and the Strategic Defense Initiative—further emphasized the Soviet Union’s lagging infrastructure and innovation.
This arms race placed immense pressure on the Soviet economy, which was already struggling with inefficiency and stagnation.
The Soviet-Afghan War and Its Consequences
In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to prop up a faltering communist government. The invasion proved to be one of the most costly mistakes in Soviet foreign policy.
- Afghan resistance fighters, known as the mujahideen, waged a prolonged guerrilla war against Soviet forces.
- The conflict became a Cold War proxy war, with the United States, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia supporting the mujahideen.
- The war lasted until 1989, costing the USSR billions of dollars, thousands of lives, and global credibility.
⭐ The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan has often been referred to as "the USSR’s Vietnam"—a drawn-out conflict that drained resources and eroded public trust in the government.
Gorbachev's Reforms and the Decline of Soviet Authority
When Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985, he introduced sweeping reforms to revitalize the Soviet Union.
Perestroika and Glasnost
- Perestroika (restructuring) aimed to decentralize the economy by introducing limited market mechanisms and reducing government control over production.
- Glasnost (openness) encouraged freedom of expression, freedom of the press, and political transparency.
These policies had unintended consequences:
- Citizens and satellite states used newfound liberties to demand more radical reforms and even independence.
- The Communist Party's monopoly on power weakened, and nationalist movements surged across Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
The Fall of Eastern Bloc Regimes
By 1989, a wave of revolutions swept through Eastern Europe:
- Communist regimes in Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Hungary collapsed, largely without Soviet intervention.
- The Berlin Wall, the most prominent symbol of Cold War division, was torn down in November 1989 after weeks of mass protests.
These events signaled the end of Soviet dominance in the region and marked a decisive turn in the Cold War.
The Collapse of the Soviet Union (1991)
Despite reform efforts, Gorbachev faced mounting pressure from both conservatives and reformists. In 1991, a failed coup by hardline communists accelerated the disintegration of Soviet authority.
- Economic crisis, food shortages, and inflation led to widespread unrest.
- Soviet republics, emboldened by glasnost, began declaring independence.
- In December 1991, the Soviet Union formally dissolved, ending nearly 70 years of communist rule.
The Russian Federation emerged as the USSR’s successor, with Boris Yeltsin elected as its first president.
Diplomacy and Arms Reduction
The end of the Cold War was also marked by diplomatic progress between the United States and the USSR.
| Treaty/Agreement | Year | Key Terms | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| INF Treaty | 1987 | Eliminated short- and medium-range nuclear missiles | First treaty to reduce—not just limit—nuclear weapons |
| Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) | 1991 | Cut long-range nuclear arsenals by 25-30% | Symbolized end of Cold War tensions |
| Reunification of Germany | 1990 | East and West Germany formally unified under NATO terms | Ended decades of division; symbolized Cold War’s end |
These agreements reflected mutual recognition that the arms race had become unsustainable and that cooperation was essential for global stability.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Afghanistan invasion | The Soviet Union's military intervention in Afghanistan beginning in 1979, which became a costly conflict that drained Soviet resources and contributed to internal discontent. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. |
| economic weakness | The deteriorating economic conditions in communist countries, including stagnation, inefficiency, and inability to compete with Western economies, which undermined public support for communist regimes. |
| military and technological development | Advances in U.S. weapons systems, defense capabilities, and technology that increased military superiority and contributed to Soviet inability to maintain competitive parity. |
| public discontent | Growing dissatisfaction and unrest among citizens in communist countries regarding political repression, economic hardship, and lack of freedoms. |
| Soviet Union | The communist superpower that existed from 1922 to 1991, led by the Communist Party and headed by leaders such as Mikhail Gorbachev during its final years. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What happened at the end of the Cold War?
At the end of the Cold War the global rivalry between the U.S. and the USSR unraveled through political, economic, and popular pressures. Reforms by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev—glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring)—tried to fix economic stagnation but loosened communist control. High costs from the Soviet–Afghan War, the arms race (including Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative), and treaties like the INF Treaty reduced tensions. Pro-democracy movements (Poland’s Solidarity led by Lech Wałęsa, 1989 revolutions) toppled communist governments across Eastern Europe; the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolized this change. The Warsaw Pact dissolved, and the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, enabling German reunification and a new world order. For the AP exam, focus on causes (economic weakness, military strains, popular protests, Gorbachev’s policies) and effects (collapse of USSR, end of bipolarity)—use those keywords on your rubric. Review the Topic 8.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Why did the Cold War actually end?
It ended because a mix of economic, political, and diplomatic pressures made the Soviet system unsustainable. By the 1980s the USSR faced economic stagnation, costly commitments (especially the Soviet–Afghan War), and an expensive arms race with U.S. technological initiatives like Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative. Mikhail Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika tried to reform the system but loosened central control, encouraging public discontent and nationalist movements (e.g., Solidarity in Poland, Lech Wałęsa). Diplomatic steps—the INF Treaty, reduced tensions, and Western pressure—plus 1989 revolutions and the fall of the Berlin Wall sped collapse. Those events led to Warsaw Pact dissolution and German reunification, ending the bipolar Cold War order and the Soviet Union itself. For AP-style answers focus on causation and provide specific evidence (leaders, policies, events) per the CED; the Topic 8.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and the Unit 8 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8) are great review sources—try practice questions too (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What caused the Soviet Union to collapse?
The Soviet Union collapsed because a mix of economic, political, and international pressures made the communist system unsustainable. Key causes: long-term economic stagnation and inefficiency; the costly and demoralizing Soviet–Afghan War; and an arms race with the U.S. (Reagan’s military buildup and the Strategic Defense Initiative) that drained resources. Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms—glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring)—aimed to fix things but loosened central control, encouraging public discontent and nationalist movements (e.g., Solidarity in Poland, Lech Wałęsa). Cold War détente and treaties like the INF reduced superpower tension, while 1989 revolutions, the fall of the Berlin Wall, Warsaw Pact dissolution, and German reunification finished the political collapse. For the AP exam, this fits Learning Objective J: explain causes of the end of the Cold War. Want a focused review or practice questions on Topic 8.8? Use Fiveable’s Topic 8.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How did the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan lead to the end of the Cold War?
The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan weakened the USSR in ways that helped end the Cold War. Fighting a decade-long, costly counterinsurgency (often called the “Soviet Vietnam”) drained military funds, exposed Soviet military limits, and increased international isolation—while the U.S. covertly supported Afghan mujahideen, raising Cold War tensions. Those costs intensified the arms-race pressure from Reagan’s military buildup and initiatives like the Strategic Defense Initiative, making clear that Soviet economic stagnation couldn’t sustain prolonged competition. When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power he pushed glasnost and perestroika to reform an overburdened state; those reforms, combined with public discontent and the Afghan quagmire, accelerated collapse of Soviet control in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact’s dissolution, and ultimately the Cold War’s end. For AP review, this is a classic causation argument tied to LOJ (explain causes) in Topic 8.8—see the topic study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What were the main reasons the Cold War ended in the 1980s?
Short answer: The Cold War ended in the 1980s because of political reform in the USSR, economic weakness in communist states, costly military overreach, and pressures from popular movements. Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika (mid-1980s) loosened political control and tried to fix a stagnant economy, but reforms accelerated collapse. The Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989) drained resources and legitimacy. U.S. pressure—including Reagan’s arms buildup and the Strategic Defense Initiative—intensified the arms race, forcing costly Soviet responses; arms-control steps like the 1987 INF Treaty reduced tensions. Popular movements (Solidarity in Poland, 1980s; 1989 revolutions) and the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 led to the Warsaw Pact’s end and German reunification (1990). These causes match AP CED Learning Objective J (see Topic 8.8) and are tested in short-answer and essay prompts. For a focused review, use the end-of-Cold-War study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and extra practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
I'm confused about how U.S. military advances helped end the Cold War - can someone explain?
U.S. military and tech advances pressured the Soviet Union by raising the cost of competition and exposing Soviet economic weaknesses. Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) pushed for high-tech missile defenses, which forced the USSR to try (and fail) to match expensive new systems. That intensified the arms race, making already-stagnant Soviet industry and budget problems worse. At the same time U.S. arms buildup and treaties like the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty signaled that the U.S. could both escalate and negotiate—undermining Soviet deterrence and prestige. These military pressures, plus the USSR’s costly Afghan intervention and internal economic stagnation, helped create the environment where Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika could take hold and reform (CED Topic 8.8, Learning Objective J). For a focused review, see the Topic 8.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05). Practice AP-style questions are at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What's the difference between the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union?
They’re related but not the same. The "end of the Cold War" describes the decline in US–Soviet rivalry—diplomatic thawing, arms-control deals (e.g., INF Treaty), Reagan’s pressures, and Gorbachev’s reforms (glasnost, perestroika) that led to 1989 events like the fall of the Berlin Wall and the 1989 revolutions in Eastern Europe. The "collapse of the Soviet Union" is the actual political disintegration of the USSR in 1991: chronic economic stagnation, the costly Afghan War, rising nationalisms, the failed August 1991 coup, and republics declaring independence. In short: the end of the Cold War = changing international tensions and policies; collapse of the Soviet Union = the Soviet state ceasing to exist. For AP prep, this matches CED Learning Objective J—use the Unit 8 study guide for Topic 8.8 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05). More unit review: (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8) and 1000+ practice questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How did economic problems in communist countries contribute to ending the Cold War?
Economic problems in communist countries were a major cause of the Cold War ending. By the 1970s–80s the Soviet planned economy faced stagnation: low growth, poor consumer goods, and heavy military spending. Trying to match U.S. advances (and Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative) worsened the USSR’s budget strain. The costly Soviet–Afghan War (1979–89) drained resources and increased public discontent. Economic weakness made reform necessary—Mikhail Gorbachev introduced perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (openness) to revive the system, but those reforms loosened central control and encouraged pro-democracy movements (e.g., Solidarity in Poland, 1989 revolutions). Unable to sustain the arms race or keep Eastern Bloc economies afloat, the USSR saw the Warsaw Pact dissolve and the Berlin Wall fall. For AP exam prep, tie this to causation and specific evidence (Gorbachev, perestroika, Soviet–Afghan War)—see the Topic 8.8 study guide for review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05). For extra practice, use Fiveable’s unit overview and 1,000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8; https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Why was the Afghanistan invasion so costly for the Soviet Union?
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979–1989) was costly because it dragged the USSR into a long guerrilla war it couldn’t win cheaply. Rugged terrain, Afghan resistance backed by the U.S., Pakistan, and others, and effective guerrilla tactics made Soviet forces suffer high casualties and equipment losses. Fighting away from home raised military spending and worsened already-weak Soviet economic stagnation, straining the budget during an expensive arms race (context: Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative). Domestically the war increased public discontent and lowered morale among troops and citizens, feeding political pressure for change that helped shape Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost and perestroika and ultimately contributed to the end of the Cold War (CED Topic 8.8, Learning Objective J). For a focused review, see the Topic 8.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and more unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8). Practice questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What role did public discontent play in ending the Cold War?
Public discontent was a key cause of the Cold War’s end because long-standing economic hardship and political repression eroded communist legitimacy across the USSR and Eastern Europe. Economic stagnation, consumer shortages, and the costly Soviet–Afghan War raised popular anger at home; strikes and movements like Solidarity in Poland (with Lech Wałęsa) showed organized opposition could force change. Mikhail Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika loosened censorship and opened political debate, which amplified public demands and made reforms irreversible. By 1989 mass protests toppled communist governments and the fall of the Berlin Wall symbolized collapse; the Warsaw Pact dissolved and Germany reunified. On the AP exam this is classic causation—use specifics (Gorbachev, glasnost/perestroika, Solidarity, Soviet–Afghan War, economic stagnation, 1989 revolutions) to explain how public discontent helped end the Cold War. Review Topic 8.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the causes of the Cold War's end?
Start with a clear thesis that links political, economic, and social causes to the Cold War’s end (e.g., “The Cold War ended because Soviet economic stagnation and costly foreign commitments, combined with Gorbachev’s reforms and Western pressure, undermined Soviet control over Eastern Europe”). In your intro also contextualize briefly (arms race after WWII, Soviet–Afghan War, 1980s tensions). For the body: use at least four documents to support specific claims (economic weakness, Soviet Afghan drain, Gorbachev’s glasnost/perestroika, Western pressure like Reagan’s SDI and INF talks, and grassroots movements such as Solidarity and the 1989 revolutions). Include one piece of outside evidence (e.g., fall of the Berlin Wall, German reunification, Warsaw Pact dissolution). Source at least two documents (author’s POV, audience, purpose). Aim to show complexity: how internal reform + external pressure interacted. Remember DBQ rules: thesis (1 pt), contextualization (1 pt), use ≥4 docs and 1 outside fact, explain sourcing for ≥2 docs, and show complexity for the final point. For topic review, see the End of the Cold War study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05), unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Did U.S. technology really help win the Cold War or is that just American propaganda?
Short answer: U.S. technology helped pressure the Soviet Union, but it wasn’t the only or sole reason the Cold War ended—not just propaganda. Advances like Reagan’s rhetoric and the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) intensified an expensive arms race; trying to match U.S. tech put real strain on an already stagnant Soviet economy. Combine that with the USSR’s costly Afghan campaign, rising public discontent, and Gorbachev’s reforms (glasnost and perestroika) that opened political space and exposed systemic problems, and you get a clearer picture: technology was an important factor that increased economic and strategic pressure, but political reform and internal weakness were equally—or more—decisive. For AP prep, link this to CED keywords (SDI, Soviet–Afghan War, economic stagnation, Gorbachev) in essays or short answers. Review Topic 8.8 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history) to prep your evidence and causation analysis.
What were the consequences of the Cold War ending for the world?
When the Cold War ended it reshaped politics, economics, and security worldwide. Politically: the Soviet Union collapsed (1991) after Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika, popular revolts (1989), and costly failures like the Soviet–Afghan War—this led to the end of the Warsaw Pact and German reunification. Militarily/diplomatically: arms-control steps (INF Treaty) and reduced superpower rivalry ended the intense arms race and changed U.S.–Soviet rivalry into cooperation on some issues. Economically: former Soviet states moved toward market reforms (unevenly), and globalization expanded as Cold War barriers fell. Socially: nationalist movements and new independent states emerged, while NATO and regional conflicts shifted focus. For AP exam prep, link these causes and effects in a causation or continuity/change argument (use keywords like Reagan, SDI, Lech Wałęsa, fall of the Berlin Wall). Review Topic 8.8 on Fiveable (study guide) for examples and hit practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05; https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
I don't understand how military spending could bankrupt a superpower like the USSR - help?
Short answer: the USSR didn’t collapse because of one bill—it was a long squeeze. For decades the Soviet state funneled a huge share of resources into the arms race and costly overseas commitments (the Soviet–Afghan War), while its planned economy produced few consumer goods and suffered chronic inefficiency and stagnation. Reagan’s military buildup and the Strategic Defense Initiative forced the Soviets to try matching expensive new technology. That diverted investment from industry, agriculture, and living standards, worsening shortages and public discontent. By the 1980s this economic strain made Gorbachev’s reforms (glasnost and perestroika) both necessary and destabilizing, accelerating collapse and the end of the Cold War (Topic 8.8, LO J). For a focused study guide on this topic use Fiveable’s End of the Cold War guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05). For extra practice, try the AP World practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How did Reagan's policies contribute to ending the Cold War?
Reagan sped up the Cold War’s end by intensifying economic and political pressure on the USSR. His massive defense buildup and the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) widened the arms race, forcing the Soviet Union to spend more while its economy was already stagnating and drained by the Soviet–Afghan War. That pressure made Soviet leaders more open to reform; when Mikhail Gorbachev came to power he pushed glasnost and perestroika and negotiated arms reductions (e.g., the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty). Reagan’s rhetoric and support for dissidents also boosted movements like Solidarity in Poland, adding political strain. In short: U.S. military/tech pressure + Soviet economic weakness + Gorbachev’s reforms and Eastern European unrest combined to end the Cold War (this maps directly to CED Learning Objective J). For a focused review, see the Topic 8.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-8/end-cold-war/study-guide/LejFMaTdzSvsve0pIO05) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).