Political Philosophy Unit 8 Review: Burke's Critique of Revolution

Key Concepts and Context

• Burke's critique of the French Revolution emerged as a seminal work in the development of conservative political philosophy
• Emphasizes the importance of tradition, organic change, and the dangers of radical upheaval
• Contrasts the French Revolution with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, which Burke saw as a legitimate and necessary adjustment to the existing order
• Situates Burke's thought within the broader context of the Enlightenment and the rise of liberal ideas
  • Challenges the notion of abstract rights and the social contract theory advocated by thinkers like Locke and Rousseau
• Highlights the tension between the ideals of the French Revolution (liberty, equality, fraternity) and the violent means employed to achieve them
• Raises questions about the nature of political legitimacy and the role of history and tradition in shaping political institutions

Burke's Life and Influences

• Born in Dublin, Ireland in 1729 to a Protestant father and Catholic mother
• Educated at Trinity College, Dublin and later moved to London to pursue a career in law and politics
• Elected to the House of Commons in 1765 as a member of the Whig party
• Served as a prominent critic of British colonial policy, particularly in India and America
  • Famously opposed the actions of the East India Company and supported the cause of American independence
• Drew inspiration from a range of intellectual sources, including classical philosophy, English common law, and the Scottish Enlightenment
• Influenced by the works of Montesquieu, particularly his emphasis on the importance of local customs and traditions in shaping political institutions
• Deeply committed to the principles of constitutional monarchy and parliamentary government, which he saw as the best safeguards against tyranny and abuse of power

The French Revolution: Background

• The French Revolution began in 1789 with the storming of the Bastille and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
• Driven by a complex set of social, economic, and political factors, including:
  • The financial crisis of the French state and the burden of taxation on the lower classes
  • The rise of Enlightenment ideas and the critique of absolute monarchy and feudal privilege
  • The example of the American Revolution and the spread of republican sentiment
• Marked by a series of dramatic events and transformations, such as:
  • The abolition of feudalism and the old regime (Ancien Régime)
  • The establishment of a constitutional monarchy and later a republic
  • The Reign of Terror and the execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette
• Generated intense debate and controversy throughout Europe, with supporters seeing it as a triumph of liberty and equality, and critics warning of chaos and tyranny

Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France"

• Published in 1790 as a response to a sermon by Richard Price praising the French Revolution
• Argues that the revolution represents a dangerous and misguided attempt to reshape society according to abstract principles
• Defends the British constitutional system as a model of gradual, organic change rooted in history and tradition
• Warns of the dangers of mob rule and the tyranny of the majority, citing the violence and instability of the French Revolution as evidence
• Emphasizes the importance of religion, property rights, and social hierarchy as the foundations of a stable and prosperous society
• Criticizes the French revolutionaries for their disregard of practical wisdom and their embrace of untested theories and ideologies
  • Famously compares them to "sophisters, economists, and calculators" who have abandoned the accumulated wisdom of the ages

Core Arguments Against Revolutionary Change

• Burke rejects the idea that society can be rebuilt from scratch according to abstract principles or theories
• Argues that successful political change must be gradual, cautious, and respectful of existing institutions and traditions
  • Uses the metaphor of a "prescriptive constitution" to describe the organic development of political systems over time
• Warns that revolutionary upheaval can unleash destructive passions and lead to anarchy, violence, and despotism
  • Points to the Reign of Terror as an example of the dangers of unchecked revolutionary fervor
• Emphasizes the importance of practical wisdom and experience in guiding political action, rather than relying on abstract theories or ideologies
• Defends the role of religion, property, and social hierarchy as necessary elements of a stable and prosperous society
  • Argues that attempts to level all distinctions and create a society of perfect equality are misguided and dangerous
• Stresses the interconnectedness of political, social, and economic institutions, and the need to preserve a delicate balance between them

Tradition and Organic Society

• Burke sees society as an organic whole, shaped by history, tradition, and the accumulated wisdom of generations
• Argues that political institutions and practices evolve gradually over time in response to changing circumstances and the needs of the community
  • Compares this process to the growth of a living organism, with each generation building on the achievements of the past
• Emphasizes the importance of preserving and transmitting cultural and moral values across generations
  • Sees this as essential for maintaining social cohesion and a sense of shared identity
• Defends the role of prejudice, habit, and custom in shaping human behavior and social interactions
  • Argues that these are not irrational or backward, but rather the product of long experience and adaptation
• Stresses the value of local knowledge and the particular over abstract, universal principles
  • Believes that political solutions must be tailored to the specific needs and circumstances of each community
• Warns against the hubris of attempting to remake society according to a preconceived plan or ideology, without regard for the complexity and fragility of social bonds

Critique of Abstract Rights

• Burke challenges the notion of abstract, universal rights as the foundation for political legitimacy
• Argues that rights are not derived from abstract principles or theories, but rather emerge from the specific history and traditions of a given society
  • Sees the French Declaration of the Rights of Man as a dangerous attempt to impose a universal standard without regard for local context
• Emphasizes the importance of balancing individual rights with social duties and obligations
  • Believes that rights must be grounded in a sense of responsibility and a commitment to the common good
• Warns that an excessive focus on individual rights can lead to social fragmentation and the erosion of communal bonds
• Defends the role of social hierarchy and inequality as natural and necessary features of human society
  • Argues that attempts to level all distinctions and create a society of perfect equality are misguided and destructive
• Stresses the importance of property rights as a foundation for social stability and economic prosperity
  • Sees the confiscation of church and aristocratic property during the French Revolution as a violation of fundamental rights and a threat to the social order

Impact on Conservative Thought

• Burke's "Reflections" became a foundational text for the conservative political tradition, both in Britain and around the world
• Influenced subsequent thinkers such as Tocqueville, Disraeli, and Oakeshott, who developed and refined Burke's ideas about tradition, organic society, and incremental change
• Provided a powerful critique of revolutionary politics and a defense of gradual, evolutionary reform
  • Shaped conservative responses to later revolutions, such as those of 1848 and 1917
• Emphasized the importance of religion, morality, and social hierarchy as bulwarks against chaos and tyranny
  • Contributed to the development of a distinctively conservative vision of the good society
• Challenged the individualism and rationalism of classical liberalism, paving the way for the emergence of a more communitarian and historically-minded conservatism
• Remains a key reference point for contemporary debates about the nature and limits of political change, the role of tradition and custom, and the balance between individual rights and social obligations

Counterarguments and Criticisms

• Some critics argue that Burke's defense of tradition and hierarchy can be used to justify oppressive and unjust social systems
  • Point to his opposition to the French Revolution and his support for the British monarchy and aristocracy as evidence of a reactionary worldview
• Others challenge Burke's conception of organic society and incremental change, arguing that it can lead to a kind of political quietism or complacency in the face of urgent social problems
• Marxist and socialist thinkers have criticized Burke's emphasis on property rights and his defense of social inequality, seeing these as obstacles to genuine human emancipation
• Liberal and progressive critics have questioned Burke's skepticism towards abstract rights and universal principles, arguing that these are essential for protecting individual freedom and promoting social justice
  • Point to the importance of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as milestones in the struggle for human dignity and equality
• Some have argued that Burke's critique of the French Revolution is based on a selective and idealized view of British history and institutions
  • Note that Britain also experienced significant social and political upheaval in the 18th and 19th centuries, including the American Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, and the rise of democratic and socialist movements
• Nonetheless, Burke's insights into the complexity of social change and the importance of tradition and organic development continue to resonate with many contemporary conservatives and political thinkers