Major Environmental Laws

Why This Matters

Environmental laws are the regulatory backbone of everything you'll study in AP Environmental Science—they're how society translates scientific understanding into action. When you learn about air pollution, water contamination, or biodiversity loss, you're really learning why these laws exist. The AP exam frequently tests your ability to connect environmental problems to their legal solutions, asking you to identify which law addresses a specific scenario or explain how regulations reduce environmental harm.

These laws demonstrate key course concepts: pollution prevention vs. remediation, command-and-control regulation, the precautionary principle, and cost-benefit analysis in environmental decision-making. You'll see them referenced across multiple units—from Unit 5's land and water use to Unit 8's pollution topics. Don't just memorize acronyms and dates—know what problem each law solves, what mechanism it uses (permits, standards, bans, cleanup funds), and how laws work together to create a comprehensive regulatory framework.

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Pollution Prevention Laws

These laws take a proactive approach by setting standards and requiring permits before pollution occurs. They establish maximum allowable levels of contamination and regulate sources directly.

Clean Air Act (CAA)

• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)—sets limits for six criteria pollutants including ground-level ozone, particulate matter, and $SO_2$
• State Implementation Plans (SIPs) require each state to develop strategies for achieving federal air quality standards in their region
• Mobile and stationary source regulation addresses both vehicle emissions and industrial facilities like power plants and factories

Clean Water Act (CWA)

• National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)—requires permits for any point source discharging pollutants into U.S. waters
• Point and nonpoint source pollution distinction is critical; the CWA primarily regulates point sources (pipes, ditches, and outfalls)
• Wastewater treatment funding helped municipalities build secondary and tertiary treatment facilities to reduce biological oxygen demand

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

• Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)—establishes enforceable standards for over 90 contaminants in public water systems
• Source water protection requires assessment of contamination risks to groundwater and surface water supplies
• Monitoring and reporting requirements ensure public water systems regularly test for pathogens, heavy metals, and organic chemicals

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Chemical and Pesticide Regulation Laws

These laws control what substances can enter commerce and the environment by requiring testing, registration, and risk assessment before widespread use.

Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

• Pre-manufacture notification requires companies to submit safety data to the EPA before introducing new chemicals to the market
• Risk-based evaluation authorizes the EPA to restrict or ban chemicals that pose unreasonable risks to human health or the environment
• Existing chemical review was strengthened in 2016 to address the backlog of untested chemicals already in commerce

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)

• Pesticide registration requires EPA approval before any pesticide can be sold or distributed in the United States
• Risk-benefit analysis weighs potential harm to humans and ecosystems against agricultural and public health benefits
• Label requirements are legally binding—using a pesticide inconsistent with its label is a federal violation

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Waste Management Laws

These laws address what happens to materials after they become waste, establishing frameworks for proper disposal, treatment, and cleanup.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

• Cradle-to-grave tracking monitors hazardous waste from generation through transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal
• Subtitle C regulates hazardous waste while Subtitle D governs non-hazardous solid waste including municipal landfills
• Waste minimization hierarchy prioritizes source reduction and recycling over treatment and disposal

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA/Superfund)

• Superfund program provides federal money to clean up abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites when responsible parties cannot be found
• Strict, joint, and several liability means any party connected to contamination can be held responsible for entire cleanup costs
• National Priorities List (NPL) ranks the most contaminated sites in the country for priority remediation

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Environmental Planning and Assessment Laws

This law requires federal agencies to consider environmental consequences before taking action, embedding environmental review into government decision-making.

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

• Environmental Impact Statements (EISs)—required for major federal actions significantly affecting the environment, including alternatives analysis
• Environmental Assessments (EAs) are shorter reviews used to determine whether a full EIS is necessary
• Public comment periods ensure community input on proposed projects like highways, dams, and federal land management decisions

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Species and Habitat Protection Laws

This law takes a preservationist approach, protecting biodiversity by prohibiting harm to listed species and their critical habitats.

Endangered Species Act (ESA)

• Listing process designates species as threatened or endangered based on scientific assessment of extinction risk
• Critical habitat designation protects geographic areas essential to species survival, restricting development and federal activities
• Section 7 consultation requires federal agencies to ensure their actions don't jeopardize listed species or destroy critical habitat

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Workplace Environmental Protection Laws

This law protects workers from environmental hazards they encounter on the job, bridging occupational safety and environmental health.

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)

• Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs)—sets maximum concentrations of hazardous substances workers can be exposed to during shifts
• Hazard Communication Standard requires employers to inform workers about chemical dangers through labels and Safety Data Sheets
• Workplace inspections enforce compliance and can result in citations and fines for violations

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. A factory wants to discharge treated wastewater into a local river. Which law requires them to obtain a permit, and what is that permit system called?

2. Compare RCRA and CERCLA: How do their approaches to hazardous waste differ in terms of timing (prevention vs. remediation)?

3. An FRQ describes a proposed federal highway project through wetlands. Which law requires the agency to assess environmental impacts before construction, and what document must they prepare?

4. Which two laws both regulate chemicals but differ in their scope—one covering industrial chemicals broadly and one specifically targeting agricultural pesticides?

5. A community discovers their tap water contains lead levels above federal standards. Which law has been violated, and what type of standard (by name) sets the legal limit for contaminants in drinking water?